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Physical Description:

paper (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 89.3 cm x 35.4 cm; 35 3/16 in x 13 15/16 in

Object Name:

chart

Subject:

Nobel Prize

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2001.0023.01

Accession number:

2001.0023

Catalog number:

2001.0023.01

Description (Brief):

This chart was used in the National Institute of Health lab of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, a scientist who won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in helping to “crack the genetic code,” or to understand the way DNA codes for the amino acids that are linked to build proteins.

The chart, made from several sheets of graph paper taped together, shows the twenty amino acids in columns across the top of the chart. The 64 nucleotide codons, the specific segments of DNA that code for amino acids, are on the vertical axis. All entries on the chart are handwritten and some sections of the graph are circled or outlined in red. Dr. Nirenberg's signature is visible at the top of the chart. It was prepared by Nirenberg to keep track of which codons stood for which amino acids.

By the late 1950s, scientists understood that DNA was the molecule containing the instructions for life. The structure of DNA was also known-- a sort of twisted ladder shape known as double helix where the “side rails” consisted of a sugar phosphate backbone and the “rungs” were made of paired nucleic acid bases (represented by A, T, G, C). The structure suggested that the order of the bases formed a code representing the order in which amino acids should be joined to produce different kinds of proteins.

But what was the code? What order of bases made up the “code words” or "codons” DNA used to represent each of the 20 amino acids? Researchers hypothesized that each codon for amino acid would be three bases long. If it was only two bases long, that would allow for only 16 different combinations of the four bases (4^2 = 16). If each codon was three bases however, that would result in 64 possible codons (4^3 =64), plenty of codons to represent each of the 20 amino acids separately.

With this knowledge, Dr. Nirenberg and his colleagues set about trying to figure out which three-base combinations represented each amino acid. It was known at the time that DNA is “transcribed” into a template RNA that interacts with ribosomes in the cell to produce proteins. Because RNA, not DNA, is what the cell reads directly to make proteins, Dr. Nirenberg reasoned that he could use a man-made stand-in for RNA that had a repeating known sequence (the same codon over and over) to produce proteins consisting of only one amino acid.

These stand-ins were known as “oligonucleotides” (see object 2001.0023.02). Using a cell-free system (one that has all the necessary parts for protein synthesis in a test tube rather than in a cell) Dr. Nirenberg introduced the oligonucleotides, consisting only of a single base, uracil, represented by U, over and over. This meant the only codon that could be read by the system was UUU or “poly-U.”

He then fed the system a supply of all 20 amino acids, one of which was radioactively labeled. Twenty different experiments were done, with only a single kind of amino acid radioactively labeled per experiment. Only when the cell was supplied with the radioactively labeled amino acid, phenylalanine, did the specially made poly-U oligonucleotide produce a radioactive protein. Nirenberg had demonstrated that the codon “UUU” is the code word for phenylalanine, and in doing so, he had cracked the first word in the genetic code.

Within five years, between the work of Nirenberg and that of several scientists using similar methods, the code for the remaining 63 codons would be understood. This chart was used to record progress in the efforts to decode those remaining 63 codons by recording the number of pmoles of radioactive aminoacyl-tRNA that bound to the ribosomes in response to a codon.

Location:

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Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_688714

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Physical Description:

glass (overall material)

metal (overall material)

paper (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 24.2 cm x 10.8 cm x 10.8 cm; 9 1/2 in x 4 1/4 in x 4 1/4 in

Object Name:

jar of oligonucleotides

Subject:

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2001.0023.02

Accession number:

2001.0023

Catalog number:

2001.0023.02

Description (Brief):

This jar was part of the National Institute of Health lab of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, a scientist who won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in helping to “crack the genetic code,” or to understand the way DNA codes for the amino acids that are linked to build proteins. The jar holds 11 oligonucleotide samples, the short man-made sequences of nucleic acid bases that were a key element of Nirenberg’s experiments.

By the late 1950s, scientists understood that DNA was the molecule containing the instructions for life. The structure of DNA was also known-- a sort of twisted ladder shape known as double helix where the “side rails” consisted of a sugar phosphate backbone and the “rungs” were made of paired nucleic acid bases (represented by A, T, G, C). The structure suggested that the order of the bases formed a code representing the order in which amino acids should be joined to produce different kinds of proteins.

But what was the code? What order of bases made up the “code words” or "codons” DNA used to represent each of the 20 amino acids? Researchers hypothesized that each codon for amino acid would be three bases long. If it was only two bases long, that would allow for only 16 different combinations of the four bases (4^2 = 16). If each codon was three bases however, that would result in 64 possible codons (4^3 =64), plenty of codons to represent each of the 20 amino acids separately.

With this knowledge, Dr. Nirenberg and his colleagues set about trying to figure out which three-base combinations represented each amino acid. It was known at the time that DNA is “transcribed” into a template RNA that interacts with ribosomes in the cell to produce proteins. Because RNA, not DNA, is what the cell reads directly to make proteins, Dr. Nirenberg reasoned that he could use a man-made stand-in for RNA that had a repeating known sequence (the same codon over and over) to produce proteins consisting of only one amino acid.

These stand-ins were known as “oligonucleotides” (see object 2001.0023.02). Using a cell-free system (one that has all the necessary parts for protein synthesis in a test tube rather than in a cell) Dr. Nirenberg introduced the oligonucleotides, consisting only of a single base, uracil, represented by U, over and over. This meant the only codon that could be read by the system was UUU or “poly-U.”

He then fed the system a supply of all 20 amino acids, one of which was radioactively labeled. Twenty different experiments were done, with only a single kind of amino acid radioactively labeled per experiment. Only when the cell was supplied with the radioactively labeled amino acid, phenylalanine, did the specially made poly-U oligonucleotide produce a radioactive protein. Nirenberg had demonstrated that the codon “UUU” is the code word for phenylalanine, and in doing so, he had cracked the first word in the genetic code.

Within five years, between the work of Nirenberg and that of several scientists using similar methods, the code for the remaining 63 codons would be understood.

Location:

Currently on loan

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Medicine and Science: Biological Sciences

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_694722

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Physical Description:

glass (overall material)

plastic (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 7 cm x 2 cm; 2 3/4 in x 13/16 in

Object Name:

sample, RNA

Subject:

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2001.0023.03

Accession number:

2001.0023

Catalog number:

2001.0023.03

Description (Brief):

This sample of tobacco mosaic virus RNA was part of the National Institute of Health lab of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, a scientist who won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in helping to “crack the genetic code,” or to understand the way DNA codes for the amino acids that are linked to build proteins. Prior to the availability of synthetic oligonucleotides (see object 2001.0023.02), Nirenberg used this sample of tobacco mosaic virus RNA as a source of mRNA for his experiments in optimizing the function of cell-free protein synthesis systems, an important precursor to his work of cracking the genetic code.

By the late 1950s, scientists understood that DNA was the molecule containing the instructions for life. The structure of DNA was also known-- a sort of twisted ladder shape known as double helix where the “side rails” consisted of a sugar phosphate backbone and the “rungs” were made of paired nucleic acid bases (represented by A, T, G, C). The structure suggested that the order of the bases formed a code representing the order in which amino acids should be joined to produce different kinds of proteins.

But what was the code? What order of bases made up the “code words” or "codons” DNA used to represent each of the 20 amino acids? Researchers hypothesized that each codon for amino acid would be three bases long. If it was only two bases long, that would allow for only 16 different combinations of the four bases (4^2 = 16). If each codon was three bases however, that would result in 64 possible codons (4^3 =64), plenty of codons to represent each of the 20 amino acids separately.

With this knowledge, Dr. Nirenberg and his colleagues set about trying to figure out which three-base combinations represented each amino acid. It was known at the time that DNA is “transcribed” into a template RNA that interacts with ribosomes in the cell to produce proteins. Because RNA, not DNA, is what the cell reads directly to make proteins, Dr. Nirenberg reasoned that he could use a man-made stand-in for RNA that had a repeating known sequence (the same codon over and over) to produce proteins consisting of only one amino acid.

These stand-ins were known as “oligonucleotides” (see object 2001.0023.02). Using a cell-free system (one that has all the necessary parts for protein synthesis in a test tube rather than in a cell) Dr. Nirenberg introduced the oligonucleotides, consisting only of a single base, uracil, represented by U, over and over. This meant the only codon that could be read by the system was UUU or “poly-U.”

He then fed the system a supply of all 20 amino acids, one of which was radioactively labeled. Twenty different experiments were done, with only a single kind of amino acid radioactively labeled per experiment. Only when the cell was supplied with the radioactively labeled amino acid, phenylalanine, did the specially made poly-U oligonucleotide produce a radioactive protein. Nirenberg had demonstrated that the codon “UUU” is the code word for phenylalanine, and in doing so, he had cracked the first word in the genetic code.

Within five years, between the work of Nirenberg and that of several scientists using similar methods, the code for the remaining 63 codons would be understood.

Location:

Currently not on view

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Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_694743

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Physical Description:

glass (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 4.8 cm x 1.2 cm; 1 7/8 in x 1/2 in

Object Name:

sample, RNA

Subject:

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2001.0023.04

Accession number:

2001.0023

Catalog number:

2001.0023.04

Description (Brief):

This sample of MS2 bacteriophage (bacterial virus) RNA was part of the National Institute of Health lab of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, a scientist who won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in helping to “crack the genetic code,” or to understand the way DNA codes for the amino acids that are linked to build proteins.

By the late 1950s, scientists understood that DNA was the molecule containing the instructions for life. The structure of DNA was also known-- a sort of twisted ladder shape known as double helix where the “side rails” consisted of a sugar phosphate backbone and the “rungs” were made of paired nucleic acid bases (represented by A, T, G, C). The structure suggested that the order of the bases formed a code representing the order in which amino acids should be joined to produce different kinds of proteins.

But what was the code? What order of bases made up the “code words” or "codons” DNA used to represent each of the 20 amino acids? Researchers hypothesized that each codon for amino acid would be three bases long. If it was only two bases long, that would allow for only 16 different combinations of the four bases (4^2 = 16). If each codon was three bases however, that would result in 64 possible codons (4^3 =64), plenty of codons to represent each of the 20 amino acids separately.

With this knowledge, Dr. Nirenberg and his colleagues set about trying to figure out which three-base combinations represented each amino acid. It was known at the time that DNA is “transcribed” into a template RNA that interacts with ribosomes in the cell to produce proteins. Because RNA, not DNA, is what the cell reads directly to make proteins, Dr. Nirenberg reasoned that he could use a man-made stand-in for RNA that had a repeating known sequence (the same codon over and over) to produce proteins consisting of only one amino acid.

These stand-ins were known as “oligonucleotides” (see object 2001.0023.02). Using a cell-free system (one that has all the necessary parts for protein synthesis in a test tube rather than in a cell) Dr. Nirenberg introduced the oligonucleotides, consisting only of a single base, uracil, represented by U, over and over. This meant the only codon that could be read by the system was UUU or “poly-U.”

He then fed the system a supply of all 20 amino acids, one of which was radioactively labeled. Twenty different experiments were done, with only a single kind of amino acid radioactively labeled per experiment. Only when the cell was supplied with the radioactively labeled amino acid, phenylalanine, did the specially made poly-U oligonucleotide produce a radioactive protein. Nirenberg had demonstrated that the codon “UUU” is the code word for phenylalanine, and in doing so, he had cracked the first word in the genetic code.

Within five years, between the work of Nirenberg and that of several scientists using similar methods, the code for the remaining 63 codons would be understood.

Location:

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Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_694744

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Physical Description:

paper (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 22.7 cm x 27.7 cm; 8 15/16 in x 10 7/8 in

Object Name:

publication plate

Subject:

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2001.0023.05

Accession number:

2001.0023

Catalog number:

2001.0023.05

Description (Brief):

This publication plate was used in a scientific journal article describing results from the National Institute of Health lab of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, a scientist who won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in helping to “crack the genetic code,” or to understand the way DNA codes for the amino acids that are linked to build proteins.

By the late 1950s, scientists understood that DNA was the molecule containing the instructions for life. The structure of DNA was also known-- a sort of twisted ladder shape known as double helix where the “side rails” consisted of a sugar phosphate backbone and the “rungs” were made of paired nucleic acid bases (represented by A, T, G, C). The structure suggested that the order of the bases formed a code representing the order in which amino acids should be joined to produce different kinds of proteins.

But what was the code? What order of bases made up the “code words” or "codons” DNA used to represent each of the 20 amino acids? Researchers hypothesized that each codon for amino acid would be three bases long. If it was only two bases long, that would allow for only 16 different combinations of the four bases (4^2 = 16). If each codon was three bases however, that would result in 64 possible codons (4^3 =64), plenty of codons to represent each of the 20 amino acids separately.

With this knowledge, Dr. Nirenberg and his colleagues set about trying to figure out which three-base combinations represented each amino acid. It was known at the time that DNA is “transcribed” into a template RNA that interacts with ribosomes in the cell to produce proteins. Because RNA, not DNA, is what the cell reads directly to make proteins, Dr. Nirenberg reasoned that he could use a man-made stand-in for RNA that had a repeating known sequence (the same codon over and over) to produce proteins consisting of only one amino acid.

These stand-ins were known as “oligonucleotides” (see object 2001.0023.02). Using a cell-free system (one that has all the necessary parts for protein synthesis in a test tube rather than in a cell) Dr. Nirenberg introduced the oligonucleotides, consisting only of a single base, uracil, represented by U, over and over. This meant the only codon that could be read by the system was UUU or “poly-U.”

He then fed the system a supply of all 20 amino acids, one of which was radioactively labeled. Twenty different experiments were done, with only a single kind of amino acid radioactively labeled per experiment. Only when the cell was supplied with the radioactively labeled amino acid, phenylalanine, did the specially made poly-U oligonucleotide produce a radioactive protein. Nirenberg had demonstrated that the codon “UUU” is the code word for phenylalanine, and in doing so, he had cracked the first word in the genetic code.

Within five years, between the work of Nirenberg and that of several scientists using similar methods, the code for the remaining 63 codons would be understood.

Location:

Currently not on view

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Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_694745

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Physical Description:

paper (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 28 cm x 35.5 cm; 11 in x 14 in

Object Name:

publication plate

Subject:

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2001.0023.06

Accession number:

2001.0023

Catalog number:

2001.0023.06

Description (Brief):

This publication plate was used in an article in Science, “RNA Codewords and Protein Synthesis” by Marshall Nirenberg and Philip Leder. It describes results from the National Institute of Health lab of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, a scientist who won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in helping to “crack the genetic code,” or to understand the way DNA codes for the amino acids that are linked to build proteins.

By the late 1950s, scientists understood that DNA was the molecule containing the instructions for life. The structure of DNA was also known-- a sort of twisted ladder shape known as double helix where the “side rails” consisted of a sugar phosphate backbone and the “rungs” were made of paired nucleic acid bases (represented by A, T, G, C). The structure suggested that the order of the bases formed a code representing the order in which amino acids should be joined to produce different kinds of proteins.

But what was the code? What order of bases made up the “code words” or "codons” DNA used to represent each of the 20 amino acids? Researchers hypothesized that each codon for amino acid would be three bases long. If it was only two bases long, that would allow for only 16 different combinations of the four bases (4^2 = 16). If each codon was three bases however, that would result in 64 possible codons (4^3 =64), plenty of codons to represent each of the 20 amino acids separately.

With this knowledge, Dr. Nirenberg and his colleagues set about trying to figure out which three-base combinations represented each amino acid. It was known at the time that DNA is “transcribed” into a template RNA that interacts with ribosomes in the cell to produce proteins. Because RNA, not DNA, is what the cell reads directly to make proteins, Dr. Nirenberg reasoned that he could use a man-made stand-in for RNA that had a repeating known sequence (the same codon over and over) to produce proteins consisting of only one amino acid.

These stand-ins were known as “oligonucleotides” (see object 2001.0023.02). Using a cell-free system (one that has all the necessary parts for protein synthesis in a test tube rather than in a cell) Dr. Nirenberg introduced the oligonucleotides, consisting only of a single base, uracil, represented by U, over and over. This meant the only codon that could be read by the system was UUU or “poly-U.”

He then fed the system a supply of all 20 amino acids, one of which was radioactively labeled. Twenty different experiments were done, with only a single kind of amino acid radioactively labeled per experiment. Only when the cell was supplied with the radioactively labeled amino acid, phenylalanine, did the specially made poly-U oligonucleotide produce a radioactive protein. Nirenberg had demonstrated that the codon “UUU” is the code word for phenylalanine, and in doing so, he had cracked the first word in the genetic code.

Within five years, between the work of Nirenberg and that of several scientists using similar methods, the code for the remaining 63 codons would be understood.

Location:

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Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_694746

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Physical Description:

paper (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 28 cm x 35.5 cm; 11 in x 14 in

Object Name:

publication plate

Subject:

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2001.0023.07

Accession number:

2001.0023

Catalog number:

2001.0023.07

Description (Brief):

This publication plate was used in an article in Science, “RNA Codewords and Protein Synthesis” by Marshall Nirenberg and Philip Leder. It describes results from the National Institute of Health lab of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, a scientist who won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in helping to “crack the genetic code,” or to understand the way DNA codes for the amino acids that are linked to build proteins.

By the late 1950s, scientists understood that DNA was the molecule containing the instructions for life. The structure of DNA was also known-- a sort of twisted ladder shape known as double helix where the “side rails” consisted of a sugar phosphate backbone and the “rungs” were made of paired nucleic acid bases (represented by A, T, G, C). The structure suggested that the order of the bases formed a code representing the order in which amino acids should be joined to produce different kinds of proteins.

But what was the code? What order of bases made up the “code words” or "codons” DNA used to represent each of the 20 amino acids? Researchers hypothesized that each codon for amino acid would be three bases long. If it was only two bases long, that would allow for only 16 different combinations of the four bases (4^2 = 16). If each codon was three bases however, that would result in 64 possible codons (4^3 =64), plenty of codons to represent each of the 20 amino acids separately.

With this knowledge, Dr. Nirenberg and his colleagues set about trying to figure out which three-base combinations represented each amino acid. It was known at the time that DNA is “transcribed” into a template RNA that interacts with ribosomes in the cell to produce proteins. Because RNA, not DNA, is what the cell reads directly to make proteins, Dr. Nirenberg reasoned that he could use a man-made stand-in for RNA that had a repeating known sequence (the same codon over and over) to produce proteins consisting of only one amino acid.

These stand-ins were known as “oligonucleotides” (see object 2001.0023.02). Using a cell-free system (one that has all the necessary parts for protein synthesis in a test tube rather than in a cell) Dr. Nirenberg introduced the oligonucleotides, consisting only of a single base, uracil, represented by U, over and over. This meant the only codon that could be read by the system was UUU or “poly-U.”

He then fed the system a supply of all 20 amino acids, one of which was radioactively labeled. Twenty different experiments were done, with only a single kind of amino acid radioactively labeled per experiment. Only when the cell was supplied with the radioactively labeled amino acid, phenylalanine, did the specially made poly-U oligonucleotide produce a radioactive protein. Nirenberg had demonstrated that the codon “UUU” is the code word for phenylalanine, and in doing so, he had cracked the first word in the genetic code.

Within five years, between the work of Nirenberg and that of several scientists using similar methods, the c

Location:

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Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_694747

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Maker:

NIH Instrument Fabrication Section

Physical Description:

metal (overall material)

plastic (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 21.7 cm x 68.5 cm x 16.6 cm; 8 9/16 in x 26 15/16 in x 6 9/16 in

Object Name:

Multiple Millipore Filtration Apparatus

Place made:

United States: Maryland, Bethesda

Date made:

1963

Subject:

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2001.0023.08

Accession number:

2001.0023

Catalog number:

2001.0023.08

Description (Brief):

This multipore filter multiplater was designed and used in the National Institute of Health lab of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, a scientist who won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in helping to “crack the genetic code,” or to understand the way DNA codes for the amino acids that are linked to build proteins.

Part of Dr. Nirenberg's research involved making radioactively-labeled proteins. To analyze the proteins, Nirenberg had to separate them from the solution in which they were suspended. The first step in this process was to add trichloroacetic acid, which caused the proteins to form a solid, clumping together into a mass known as a precipitate. Next, the precipitate had to be separated from the rest of the solution. Originally separation was done by differential centrifugation, but that process was very time-consuming. Eventually, Nirenberg decided to try washing the precipitate over millipore filters under suction. The solution was pored over a millipore filter, trapping the precipitate but letting the solution drain through. Suction sped up the draining process. The first device he designed only was capable of handling one sample at a time, but later Philip Leder, who was then working with Dr. Nirenberg, designed this device to run large batches of the process. The mulitiple pores allowed suction to be applied to 45 samples at once.

The instrument was made in the NIH Instrument Fabrication section and was dubbed the "multi-plater" by Dr. Nirenberg. Compared to the centrifuge, it saved immense amounts of time, allowing the researchers to increase their output by more than five-fold.

The device has a four-legged steel base with tube connections for suction. The top portion, made of plastic, is in two parts and clamps onto the base. The bottom plastic part contains the 45 millipore filters. The top portion, which fits over it, has 45 holes connecting to the filters into which the precipitate is placed and then stoppered.

To learn more about Dr. Nirenberg’s efforts to crack the genetic code please see his jar of oligonucleotides, object number 2001.0023.02.

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Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1000936

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Maker:

Sorvall

Physical Description:

steel (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 29.2 cm x 14.7 cm; 11 1/2 in x 5 13/16 in

Object Name:

centrifuge rotor

Subject:

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2001.0023.09

Catalog number:

2001.0023.09

Accession number:

2001.0023

Description (Brief):

This rotor was part of a DuPont-Sorvell centrifuge was used in the National Institute of Health lab of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg, a scientist who won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in helping to “crack the genetic code,” or to understand the way DNA codes for the amino acids that are linked to build proteins. It was used to separate heavier ribosomes from the lighter cell-free protein synthesis solution, which contains DNA, mRNA, enzymes, and tRNA. The rotor holds six centrifuge tubes and is missing its cover.

By the late 1950s, scientists understood that DNA was the molecule containing the instructions for life. The structure of DNA was also known-- a sort of twisted ladder shape known as double helix where the “side rails” consisted of a sugar phosphate backbone and the “rungs” were made of paired nucleic acid bases (represented by A, T, G, C). The structure suggested that the order of the bases formed a code representing the order in which amino acids should be joined to produce different kinds of proteins.

But what was the code? What order of bases made up the “code words” or "codons” DNA used to represent each of the 20 amino acids? Researchers hypothesized that each codon for amino acid would be three bases long. If it was only two bases long, that would allow for only 16 different combinations of the four bases (4^2 = 16). If each codon was three bases however, that would result in 64 possible codons (4^3 =64), plenty of codons to represent each of the 20 amino acids separately.

With this knowledge, Dr. Nirenberg and his colleagues set about trying to figure out which three-base combinations represented each amino acid. It was known at the time that DNA is “transcribed” into a template RNA that interacts with ribosomes in the cell to produce proteins. Because RNA, not DNA, is what the cell reads directly to make proteins, Dr. Nirenberg reasoned that he could use a man-made stand-in for RNA that had a repeating known sequence (the same codon over and over) to produce proteins consisting of only one amino acid.

These stand-ins were known as “oligonucleotides” (see object 2001.0023.02). Using a cell-free system (one that has all the necessary parts for protein synthesis in a test tube rather than in a cell) Dr. Nirenberg introduced the oligonucleotides, consisting only of a single base, uracil, represented by U, over and over. This meant the only codon that could be read by the system was UUU or “poly-U.”

He then fed the system a supply of all 20 amino acids, one of which was radioactively labeled. Twenty different experiments were done, with only a single kind of amino acid radioactively labeled per experiment. Only when the cell was supplied with the radioactively labeled amino acid, phenylalanine, did the specially made poly-U oligonucleotide produce a radioactive protein. Nirenberg had demonstrated that the codon “UUU” is the code word for phenylalanine, and in doing so, he had cracked the first word in the genetic code.

Within five years, between the work of Nirenberg and that of several scientists using similar methods, the code for the remaining 63 codons would be understood.

Location:

Currently not on view

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Medicine and Science: Biological Sciences

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1000939

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Maker:

Applied Biosystems

Physical Description:

steel (overall material)

plastic (overall material)

Measurements:

overall: 53 in x 30 in x 29 1/2 in; 134.62 cm x 76.2 cm x 74.93 cm

Object Name:

DNA analyzer

Date made:

1999

Subject:

Biotechnology and Genetics

ID Number:

2004.0226.1

Accession number:

2004.0226

Catalog number:

2004.0226.01

Description (Brief):

This object is a DNA analyzer used by the Celera Corporation in its effort to be the first to sequence the human genome. A genome consists of all the genetic material or DNA that make up an organism’s hereditary information. The Human Genome Project began in 1985 as a federally funded public research project to determine the sequence of the nucleotide bases (the A's, G's, C’s and T’s whose order leads to differences in DNA) in the human genome. In 1998, J. Craig Venter, a former NIH researcher, started his own for-profit company, Celera Corporation, with the goal of sequencing the genome more quickly than the publically funded Human Genome Project. The creation of Celera effectively turned the sequencing of the human genome into a race between public and private industry.

This machine, the ABI 3700 DNA analyzer, was the first production-scale DNA analyzer and it became the workhorse of both public and private efforts. It uses an automated, high-throughput capillary electrophoresis system to analyze DNA samples that have been tagged with fluorescent dyes. The machine, with the help of an attached computer, can convert the information from the DNA’s fluorescence into electronic information about the sequence of the nucleotide bases in the sample. In doing so, it sequences the sample—giving the exact order of bases in the DNA.

At Celera, 300 of these machines, including this object, ran unattended all day and all night, was capable of sequencing 900,000 base pairs of DNA in the course of 24 hours. A white paper sign with the number 9 printed on it in black is taped to one side of the analyzer. That probably means this machine was #9 out of the 300 at Celera.

Location:

Currently not on view

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Medicine and Science: Biological Sciences

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1297334

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Referenced:

Boyer, Herbert

User:

Cohen, Stanley N.

Maker:

Cohen, Stanley

Physical Description:

paper (overall material)

composition (overall material)

gray (overall color)

white (overall color)

Measurements:

average spatial: 24 cm x 19 cm x 1.5 cm; 9 7/16 in x 7 1/2 in x 9/16 in

Object Name:

notebook, lab

Referenced:

United States: California, San Francisco

United States: California

Associated place:

United States: California, Stanford

Date made:

1972-1978

Used date:

1972-1974

Subject:

Health & Medicine

Science & Mathematics

National Treasures exhibit

Biotechnology and Genetics

Related Publication:

Kendrick, Kathleen M. and Peter C. Liebhold. Smithsonian Treasures of American History

Publication title:

Treasures of American History online exhibition

Publication author:

National Museum of American History

Publication URL:

http://americanhistory.si.edu/treasures

ID Number:

1987.0757.01

Catalog number:

1987.0757.01

Accession number:

1987.0757

Patent number:

4,237,224

Location:

Currently not on view

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Medicine and Science: Medicine

National Treasures exhibit

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1131084

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Maker:

Ortho Pharmaceutical Corporation

Physical Description:

glass (overall material)

plastic (overall material)

murine monoclonal antibody muromonab-CDE, 5 mg (drug active ingredients)

Measurements:

overall: 3 3/8 in x 1 1/4 in x 1 1/4 in; 8.5725 cm x 3.175 cm x 3.175 cm

Object Name:

Ortholocane

pharmaceutical

Place made:

United States: New Jersey, Raritan

Subject:

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Health & Medicine

ID Number:

1987.0780.01

Accession number:

1987.0780

Catalog number:

1987.0780.01

Description (Brief):

Orthoclone OKT3 prevents rejection of new tissues in patients who have received kidney grafts. It was the first drug created through monoclonal antibody technology to be approved for human use.

Monoclonal antibody technology uses specially made cells as tiny factories to pump out pure sources of a single antibody. Prior to its development, it was very difficult to isolate large amounts of a single antibody for therapeutic use.

Monoclonal antibody cells are created by fusing two cells of different origins. One cell, from a mouse's spleen, produces the antibody. The other cell, from a tumor, has the ability to replicate continuously. By fusing the two cells, a new cell is created which has the best characteristics of both-it produces the antibody and also grows quickly. These new cells produce large amounts of pure antibodies which are harvested for use in drugs like Orthoclone OKT3.

The object is a clear glass 5 mL ampule with a blue ring around the neck and a clear label with blue printing. It is housed in a formfitting plastic case with snap top and snap sides.

Location:

Currently not on view

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Medicine and Science: Medicine

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1000965

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Maker:

Schering Corporation

Physical Description:

Interferon alfa-2b recombinant, 5 million IU per vial (overall active ingredients)

Dilutent for Intron A Bacteriostatic water for injection, 1 mL (overall active ingredients)

Measurements:

overall: 8.8 cm x 6.2 cm x 3.5 cm; 3 7/16 in x 2 7/16 in x 1 3/8 in

bottle: 8 cm x 4 cm; 3 5/32 in x 1 9/16 in

Object Name:

vial, Interferon

biological

pharmaceutical

Place made:

United States: New Jersey, Kenilworth

Date made:

1988

Subject:

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Health & Medicine

Credit Line:

Gift of Schering Corporation, through Steven Schneider, Vice-President

ID Number:

1987.0781.01

Accession number:

1987.0781

Catalog number:

1987.0781.01

Description (Brief):

Intron A is an injectible recombinant pharmaceutical used to treat hairy cell leukemia.

Recombinant pharmaceuticals are created by inserting genes from one species into a host species, often yeast or bacteria, where they do not naturally occur. The genes code for a desired product, and therefore the genetically modified host organisms can be grown and used as a kind of living factory to produce the product. In this case, genes coding for human white blood cell interferons are inserted into bacteria. Interferon is a substance that is naturally made by the body to fight infections and tumors. Bacteria produce the interferons, which are harvested and used as the active ingredient in Intron A.

Object consists of a cardboard box containing a second box, two glass bottles (one of the active pharmaceutical and one of the dilutent), and two product inserts.

Location:

Currently not on view

See more items in:

Medicine and Science: Medicine

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1000950

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Maker:

Schering Corporation

Physical Description:

interferon alfa-2b recombinant (overall material)

glycine (overall material)

sodium phosphate dibasic (overall material)

white (overall color)

Measurements:

overall: 8.8 cm x 6.2 cm x 3.5 cm; 3 7/16 in x 2 7/16 in x 1 3/8 in

Object Name:

biological, box

biological

pharmaceutical

Place made:

United States: New Jersey, Kenilworth

Date made:

1988

Subject:

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Health & Medicine

Credit Line:

Gift of Schering Corporation, through Steven Schneider, Vice-President

ID Number:

1987.0781.02

Catalog number:

1987.0781.02

Accession number:

1987.0781

Description (Brief):

Intron A is an injectible recombinant pharmaceutical used to treat hairy cell leukemia.

Recombinant pharmaceuticals are created by inserting genes from one species into a host species, often yeast or bacteria, where they do not naturally occur. The genes code for a desired product, and therefore the genetically modified host organisms can be grown and used as a kind of living factory to produce the product. In this case, genes coding for human white blood cell interferons are inserted into bacteria. Interferon is a substance that is naturally made by the body to fight infections and tumors. Bacteria produce the interferons, which are harvested and used as the active ingredient in Intron A.

Object consists of a cardboard box containing a second box, two glass bottles (one of the active pharmaceutical and one of the dilutent), and two product inserts.

Location:

Currently not on view

See more items in:

Medicine and Science: Pharmacy

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1071421

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Maker:

Schering Corporation

Physical Description:

Interferon alfa-2b recombinant, 10 million IU per vial (overall active ingredients)

Dilutent for Intron A, Bacteriostatic water for injection, 2 mL (overall active ingredients)

Measurements:

overall: 8.8 cm x 6.2 cm x 3.5 cm; 3 7/16 in x 2 7/16 in x 1 3/8 in

Object Name:

vial, Interferon

biological

pharmaceutical

Place made:

United States: New Jersey, Kenilworth

Date made:

1988

Subject:

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Health & Medicine

Credit Line:

Gift of Schering Corporation, through Steven Schneider, Vice-President

ID Number:

1987.0781.03

Accession number:

1987.0781

Catalog number:

1987.0781.03

Description (Brief):

Intron A is an injectible recombinant pharmaceutical used to treat hairy cell leukemia.

Recombinant pharmaceuticals are created by inserting genes from one species into a host species, often yeast or bacteria, where they do not naturally occur. The genes code for a desired product, and therefore the genetically modified host organisms can be grown and used as a kind of living factory to produce the product. In this case, genes coding for human white blood cell interferons are inserted into bacteria. Interferon is a substance that is naturally made by the body to fight infections and tumors. Bacteria produce the interferons, which are harvested and used as the active ingredient in Intron A.

Object consists of a cardboard box containing a second box, two glass bottles (one of the active pharmaceutical and one of the dilutent), and two product inserts.

Location:

Currently not on view

See more items in:

Medicine and Science: Medicine

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1000951

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Maker:

Schering Corporation

Physical Description:

interferon alfa-2b recombinant (overall material)

glycine (overall material)

sodium phosphate dibasic (overall material)

white (overall color)

Measurements:

overall: 8.8 cm x 6.2 cm x 3.5 cm; 3 7/16 in x 2 7/16 in x 1 3/8 in

bottles: 3.8 cm x 1.6 cm; 1 1/2 in x 5/8 in

small box: 8.2 cm x 3.1 cm x 3.2 cm; 3 7/32 in x 1 7/32 in x 1 1/4 in

Object Name:

biological, box of

biological

pharmaceutical

Place made:

United States: New Jersey, Kenilworth

Date made:

1988

Subject:

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Health & Medicine

Credit Line:

Gift of Schering Corporation, through Steven Schneider, Vice-President

ID Number:

1987.0781.04

Accession number:

1987.0781

Catalog number:

1987.0781.04

Description (Brief):

Intron A is an injectible recombinant pharmaceutical used to treat hairy cell leukemia.

Recombinant pharmaceuticals are created by inserting genes from one species into a host species, often yeast or bacteria, where they do not naturally occur. The genes code for a desired product, and therefore the genetically modified host organisms can be grown and used as a kind of living factory to produce the product. In this case, genes coding for human white blood cell interferons are inserted into bacteria. Interferon is a substance that is naturally made by the body to fight infections and tumors. Bacteria produce the interferons, which are harvested and used as the active ingredient in Intron A.

Object consists of cardboard box containing a second box, two glass bottles (one of the active pharmaceutical and one of the dilutent), and two product inserts.

Location:

Currently not on view

See more items in:

Medicine and Science: Pharmacy

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1071422

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Maker:

Schering Corporation

Physical Description:

Interferon alfa-2b,, recombinant, 25million IU per vial (overall active ingredients)

Dilutent for Intron A, Bacteriostatic water for injection, 5 mL (overall active ingredients)

Measurements:

overall: 8.8 cm x 6.2 cm x 3.5 cm; 3 7/16 in x 2 7/16 in x 1 3/8 in

Object Name:

vial, Interferon

biological

pharmaceutical

Place made:

United States: New Jersey, Kenilworth

Date made:

1988

Subject:

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Health & Medicine

Credit Line:

Gift of Schering Corporation, through Steven Schneider, Vice-President

ID Number:

1987.0781.05

Accession number:

1987.0781

Catalog number:

1987.0781.05

Description (Brief):

Intron A is an injectible recombinant pharmaceutical used to treat hairy cell leukemia.

Recombinant pharmaceuticals are created by inserting genes from one species into a host species, often yeast or bacteria, where they do not naturally occur. The genes code for a desired product, and therefore the genetically modified host organisms can be grown and used as a kind of living factory to produce the product. In this case, genes coding for human white blood cell interferons are inserted into bacteria. Interferon is a substance that is naturally made by the body to fight infections and tumors. Bacteria produce the interferons, which are harvested and used as the active ingredient in Intron A.

Object consists of a cardboard box containing a second box, two glass bottles (one of the active pharmaceutical and one of the dilutent), and two product inserts.

Location:

Currently not on view

See more items in:

Medicine and Science: Medicine

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1000952

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Maker:

Schering Corporation

Physical Description:

interferon alfa-2b recombinant (overall material)

glycine (overall material)

sodium phosphate dibasic (overall material)

white (overall color)

Measurements:

overall: 8.8 cm x 6.2 cm x 3.5 cm; 3 7/16 in x 2 7/16 in x 1 3/8 in

Object Name:

biological, box of

biological

pharmaceutical

Place made:

United States: New Jersey, Kenilworth

Date made:

1988

Subject:

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Health & Medicine

Credit Line:

Gift of Schering Corporation, through Steven Schneider, Vice-President

ID Number:

1987.0781.06

Catalog number:

1987.0781.06

Accession number:

1987.0781

Description (Brief):

Intron A is an injectible recombinant pharmaceutical used to treat hairy cell leukemia.

Recombinant pharmaceuticals are created by inserting genes from one species into a host species, often yeast or bacteria, where they do not naturally occur. The genes code for a desired product, and therefore the genetically modified host organisms can be grown and used as a kind of living factory to produce the product. In this case, genes coding for human white blood cell interferons are inserted into bacteria. Interferon is a substance that is naturally made by the body to fight infections and tumors. Bacteria produce the interferons, which are harvested and used as the active ingredient in Intron A.

Object consists of a cardboard box containing a second box, two glass bottles (one of the active pharmaceutical and one of the dilutent), and two product inserts.

Location:

Currently not on view

See more items in:

Medicine and Science: Pharmacy

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1071423

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Maker:

Merck Sharp and Dohme

Physical Description:

Hepatitis B surface antigen on alum adjuvant, 5 mcg (drug active ingredients)

Measurements:

overall: 2 1/2 in x 1 5/16 in x 1 3/16 in; 6.35 cm x 3.33375 cm x 3.01625 cm

bottle: 3.3 mm x 1.4 cm; 1/8 in x 9/16 in

Object Name:

pharmaceutical

vaccine

Place made:

United States: Pennsylvania, West Point

Subject:

Vaccines

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Health & Medicine

ID Number:

1987.0782.01

Accession number:

1987.0782

Catalog number:

1987.0782.01

Description (Brief):

Recombivax HB is a vaccine that provides immunization against hepatitis B. It is injected intramuscularly. Recombivax HB is the first recombinant vaccine. Prior hepatitis B vaccines relied on viruses derived from human blood sources.

Recombinant pharmaceuticals are created by inserting genes from one species into a host species, often yeast or bacteria, where they do not naturally occur. The genes code for a desired product, and therefore the genetically modified host organisms can be grown and used as a kind of living factory to produce the product. In this case, genes coding for the hepatitis B virus's surface antigen are inserted into yeast. Yeast produce the hepatitis B surface antigens, which are harvested and used as the active ingredient in Recombivax HB. Surface antigens are the part of the hepatitis B virus that the body recognizes to create an immune response. After being exposed to the antigen, the body learns to identify and respond quickly to the presence of hepatitis B and can successfully ward off future possible infections.

Object consists of a white cardboard box with light blue stripes and light blue, red, and black printing. Box contains a product insert and a round clear glass bottle with metal top and white label. Bottle contains clear solution.

Location:

Currently not on view

See more items in:

Medicine and Science: Medicine

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1000962

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Maker:

Merck Sharp and Dohme

Physical Description:

Hepatitis B surface antigen on an alum adjuvant, 10 mcg per 1.0 mL (drug active ingredients)

Measurements:

overall: 2 1/2 in x 1 5/16 in x 1 3/16 in; 6.35 cm x 3.33375 cm x 3.01625 cm

bottle: 4.6 cm x 1.7 cm; 1 13/16 in x 21/32 in

Object Name:

pharmaceutical

vaccine

Place made:

United States: Pennsylvania, West Point

Subject:

Vaccines

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Health & Medicine

ID Number:

1987.0782.02

Accession number:

1987.0782

Catalog number:

1987.0782.02

Description (Brief):

Recombivax HB is a vaccine that provides immunization against Hepatitis B. It is injected intramuscularly. Recombivax HB is the first recombinant vaccine. Prior hepatitis B vaccines relied on viruses derived from human blood sources.

Recombinant pharmaceuticals are created by inserting genes from one species into a host species, often yeast or bacteria, where they do not naturally occur. The genes code for a desired product, and therefore the genetically modified host organisms can be grown and used as a kind of living factory to produce the product. In this case, genes coding for the hepatitus B virus's surface antigen are inserted into yeast. Yeast produce the hepatitis B surface antigens, which are harvested and used as the active ingredient in Recombivax HB. Surface antigens are the part of the hepatitis B virus that the body recognizes to create an immune response. After being exposed to the antigen, the body learns to identify and respond quickly to the presence of hepatitis B and can successfully ward off future possible infections.

Object consists of a white cardboard box with red stripes and light blue, red and black printing. Box contains product insert and round clear glass bottle with green metal top and white label. Bottle contains clear solution.

Location:

Currently not on view

See more items in:

Medicine and Science: Medicine

Recombinant Pharmaceuticals

Biotechnology and Genetics

Data Source:

National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center

Record ID:

nmah_1000964

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