Freedmen's Bureau Digital Collection, 1865–1872, is a product of and owned by the National Museum of African American History and Culture, Smithsonian Institution. Copyright for digital images is retained by the donor, FamilySearch International; permission for commercial use of the digital images may be requested from FamilySearch International, Intellectual Property Office, at: cor-intellectualproperty@ldschurch.org.
Collection Citation:
Courtesy of the U. S. National Archives and Records Administration, FamilySearch International, and the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture.
The Maid of Cotton (MOC) beauty pageant was sponsored by the National Cotton Council, Memphis Cotton Carnival, and the Cotton Exchanges of Memphis, New York, and New Orleans from 1939-1993. The contest was held annually in Memphis, Tennessee until the National Cotton Council and Cotton Council International moved to Dallas, Texas. Beginning with the 1985 pageant (held December 1984) the competition was held in Dallas. The pageant was discontinued in 1993 due to lack of funds, a sponsor, and changes in marketing strategies. The records include files on contestants, photographs, and scrapbooks.
Scope and Contents:
The collection contains the records for the Maid of Cotton pageant (1939-1993) sponsored by the National Cotton Council (NCC), Memphis Cotton Carnival, and the Cotton Exchanges of Memphis, New York, and New Orleans. The collection consists of approximately 38 cubic feet of records created by the NCC in the course of operating the Maid of Cotton contest from 1939 to 1993. The records form the complete archive of this fifty-four year program. The records include administrative files, scrapbooks, photographs, slides, and videotapes.
"One of the main values of the Maid of Cotton collection is its completeness. These are all of the official records of the program, documenting all of its activities throughout its entire existence from 1939 to 1993. As such, it represents a truly unique documentary record and opportunity for research.
Beauty contests have been the subject of serious scholarly study for many years. A search of WorldCat reveals over fifty books on the topic. Scholars have found the subject to be a fruitful springboard from which to study a wide variety of topics, primarily centered around issues of beauty, femininity, culture values, national identity, racism, and feminism.
Beauty pageants serve as symbols that reflect the values of American culture. For example, pageant winners have symbolized the advances made by formerly disenfranchised groups. Vanessa Williams, the first African American to win the Miss America crown (1983), rewrote the definition of beauty in America, and Heather Whitestone, the first deaf Miss America (1995), proved that physical handicaps need not hold anyone back from their dreams. Pageants can provide a focus for the re-examination of our society and culture. The tragic murder of six-year-old Jonbenet Ramsey in 1996 provided a window into what author Susan Anderson calls "the extravagant world of child beauty pageants," that led to public debate about issues of motherhood and adolescence.
In addition, beauty pageants can be viewed in advertising terms: they are the ultimate expression of the tried and true adage that sex sells. All pageants have sponsors and all sponsors want their products to be seen in a positive light. Some sponsors are content to contribute goods and services to the contestants --a new car, a trip to the Caribbean, a fur coat, etc. --so that their generosity can be noted in the publicity surrounding the contest. Others prefer to sponsor the entire program. The Miss Universe contest, for example, was created in 1952 by the Jantzen Company specifically to enable the company to showcase pretty girls wearing its swimsuits. Jantzen abruptly withdrew its previous support of the Miss America pageant when Yolande Betbeze refused to wear a bathing suit during her reign as Miss America 1951. The Maid of Cotton pageant is a highly organized, year-long, very visible public relations program that allows the National Cotton Council to showcase the wonders of cotton through the wonders of young beauty queens. Attractive young women are the perfect vehicle for promoting fashionable fabrics made from cotton.
Cotton --the product at the heart of the Maid of Cotton program --has been central to American economic and political history. NMAH's collecting and research interests reflect this. The Division of Work & Industry contains numerous cotton-related objects and much documentation on the subject. The Archives Center holds several cotton-related collections, including the Peter Paul Haring Papers, 1897-1935, documenting Haring's development of cotton picking machinery; the Lockwood Greene collection of thousands of engineering drawings, many of which were for textile mills; the Robert L. Shurr Script and Scrapbook for a 1939 biographical motion picture on Dr. George Washington Carver; and the Southern Agriculture Oral History Project Records, 1985-1992, which documents modern cotton farming through photography and oral history interviews. In addition, all aspects of cotton production, from farm to factory to finished goods, are documented in several hundred photos in the Underwood & Underwood Agricultural Photonegative Collection, the Underwood & Underwood Glass Stereograph Collection, the Division of Work & Industry Lantern Slide Collection, and the Donald Sultner-Welles Photograph Collection. Cultural aspects of cotton can be discovered in both the Warshaw Collection of Business Americana and in the DeVincent Collection of Illustrated American Sheet Music." (Orr, Craig. "NMAH Collections Committee", memorandum, 2009)
Series 1, Organizational and Pageant Files, 1939-1993, undated., is arranged chronologically by year. Files may contain correspondence, photographs, news clippings, radio commercial scripts, tear sheets, itineraries, trip reports, sheet music, legal documents, waivers, and permissions, and other material related to the Maid of Cotton pageant for that year. Files may also contain subsequent personal information on the Maid of Cotton for that year, for example change of address, news clippings, and the like. This series contains finalist files, trip files and tour report files.
Series 2, Photographs, Slides, and Transparencies, 1939-1994, undated., is arranged chronologically by year. This series contains photographs, slides, and transparencies related to the Maid of Cotton and her travels throughout the United States and overseas. It also contains photographs of the fashions worn by each Maid.
Series 3, Scrapbooks, 1951-1988, contains the scrapbooks created by the National Cotton Council office as well as scrapbooks created by the Maids themselves or others for her. Scrapbooks most often contain news clippings, ephemera, and sometimes correspondence.
Series 4, Audio-Visual, 1991-1993. This series contains video and audio related to the Maid of Cotton. It is currently unprocessed.
Arrangement:
This collection is arranged into four series.
Series 1: Organizational and Pageant Files, 1939-1993, undated
Subseries 1.1: Maid of Cotton files, 1939-1993
Subseries 1.2: Little Miss Cotton, 1956-1963, undated
Series 2: Photographs, Slides, and Transparencies, 1939-1994, undated
Subseries 2.1: Photographic Negatives and Transparencies, 1939-1993, undated
Subseries 2.2: Slides, 1939-1993, undated
Series 3: Scrapbooks, 1951-1988
Series 4: Audio-Visual, 1991-1993, undated
Biographical / Historical:
The Maid of Cotton pageant began in 1939. The annual pageant was sponsored by the National Cotton Council (NCC), Memphis Cotton Carnival, and the Cotton Exchanges of Memphis, New York, and New Orleans. The pageant was held in Memphis, Tennessee, in conjunction with the Carnival until the 1980s.
In mid-December every year the NCC released a list of contestants. Contestants were required to have been born in one of the cotton-producing states: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico, North and South Carolina, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas or Virginia. They might have also been born in the cotton-producing counties of Alexander, Jefferson, Massac, Pulaski, Williamson or Madison, Illinois or in Clark or Nye counties of Nevada. There were usually twenty contestants each year.
Contestants were judged on personality, good manners, intelligence, and family background as well as beauty and an ability to model. A Top Ten were chosen and then a Top Five, and finally second and first runners up and a winner. Winners served as goodwill and fashion ambassadors of the cotton industry in a five-month, all-expense tour of American cities. In the mid-1950s the tour expanded globally. In the late 1950s a Little Miss Cotton pageant was begun but lasted only until 1963 before being discontinued. In the mid-1980s Dallas,Texas took over the pageant, in conjunction with the NCC and its overseas division, Cotton Council International. In 1986, to bolster interest and participation, the NCC eliminated the rule requiring contestants to be born in a cotton-producing state. The pageant was discontinued in 1993, one of the reasons being that Cotton Inc. stopped contributing scholarship money as well as waning public interest and changing marketing strategies. (pageantopolis.com website accessed April 2012.)
"The National Cotton Council is the official trade association of the cotton industry. The NCC was founded in 1939 to promote the interests of cotton farmers, ginners, brokers, and manufacturers from the Southern, cotton-growing states. Its mission evolved over the years as new uses for cotton and its byproducts have been found; as competition from synthetic fibers developed; as fashion tastes changed; as government regulation increased; and in response to foreign competition in both farming and manufacturing . The NCC website states that its modern-day mission is "to ensure the ability of all U.S. cotton industry segments to compete effectively and profitably in the raw cotton, oilseed and U.S.-manufactured product markets at home and abroad." Throughout its existence, the NCC has been the contact point for issues affecting its members, legislators in Congress, allied agribusiness, and consumers.
One of the first NCC programs undertaken by to promote the versatility and value of cotton to consumers was the Maid of Cotton program, begun in 1939. This consisted of a beauty pageant open to young women born in one of the seventeen southern cotton growing states. The contestants were evaluated on the basis of beauty, personality, poise, good manners, and intelligence; a family background in cotton production was especially helpful. The girls had to apply for selection to compete in the program. At first this was done directly to the Memphis-based program but eventually a system of state Maid of Cotton programs were established, whose winners went on to compete in the national Maid of Cotton contest. The Maid of Cotton received numerous prizes, whose value and variety tended to increase over the years. In the late 1940s, the program added a scholarship prize, probably in emulation of the Miss America contest. The Maid of Cotton pageant was held each December in Memphis as part of that city's Cotton Carnival festivities. The winner was featured prominently on her own float in the Cotton Carnival parade, was feted at prestigious Carnival events, and was treated as royalty wherever she went. Selection as the Maid of Cotton carried a high degree of status and mature ladies in the South to this day proudly identify themselves as such.
The Maid of Cotton's main function, once crowned, was to serve as a goodwill and fashion ambassador for cotton; any publicity she gained was automatically positive publicity for the cotton industry. Accompanied by an NCC-appointed manager, the Maids embarked on an all-expenses-paid tour. The Maids appeared in full regalia at public events such as county fairs, parades, and holiday events; starred in fashion shows featuring all-cotton outfits; gave speeches to local chambers of commerce and other groups; and in general were the attractive personification of the cotton industry wherever they went. At first, the tours concentrated on the cotton states but they were later extended to major cities outside the cotton belt and came to include visits to legislators on Capitol Hill. Beginning in the mid-1950s, the Maids began touring internationally and in the 1970s and 1980s they frequently headed up fashion shows in Asia.
Over time, however, the publicity value of an industry-anointed beauty queen lost its attraction both to the public and --more importantly --to the press. In addition, the role of cotton in the South, particularly in Memphis, declined. In 1986 the contest was moved from Memphis to Dallas. Eventually the cotton industry withdrew its support for the program's scholarships; the 1993 Maid of Cotton was the last to be crowned." (Orr, Craig. "NMAH Collections Committee", memorandum, 2009)
Related Materials:
Materials in the Archives Center
National Cotton Council Records, circa 1960s-1980s (AC1177)
Southern Agriculture Oral History Project Records, 1986-1991 (AC0773)
Provenance:
This collection was donated by the Cotton Museum at the Memphis Cotton Exchange on October 14, 2009.
Restrictions:
Collection is open for research but the negatives are stored off-site and special arrangements must be made to work with it. Contact the Archives Center for information at archivescenter@si.edu or 202-633-3270.
Rights:
Collection items available for reproduction, but the Archives Center makes no guarantees concerning copyright restrictions. Other intellectual property rights may apply. Archives Center cost-recovery and use fees may apply when requesting reproductions.
An extensive collection of oral histories conducted by Lu Ann Jones throughout the southern United States between 1985-1991. A few oral histories were conducted by Pete Daniel in the early 1980s. Subjects include all facets of agriculture in the south.
Scope and Contents note:
The collection is divided into four series. Series 1: Oral History Transcripts, 1982-1991 are transcribed versions of the oral interviews. Correspondence and/or notes pertaining to the interviewed individual collected or written by the interviewer are filed in this series following the transcription. The majority of the oral histories were done by Lu Ann Jones between1985-1991. There are a few interviews done by Pete Daniel in the early 1980s and some reference copies of oral histories done elsewhere.
This series is divided into eight sub-series: Sub-series 1.1: Arkansas, Sub-series 1.2: Georgia, Sub-series 1.3: Louisiana, Sub-series 1.4: Mississippi, Sub-series 1.5: North Carolina (including transcripts of the Mexican Workers Project in English and Spanish), Sub-series 1.6: South Carolina, Sub-series 1.7: Tennessee, and Sub-series 1.8: Virginia. Files are arranged alphabetically by state and there under by name; within the file materials are arranged chronologically. Interview files may contain transcribed copies of the oral history interviews and subsequent draft copies with corrections by the interviewer or subject. The file also may contain distillations or edited versions of the interview done by the researcher for possible publication. Correspondence and notes files may include Life History Forms, correspondence, newspaper articles, interviewer's notes, business cards, and paper copies of photographs. Signed releases are on file in the registrar's office, NMAH, with copies in the control file of the Archives Center.
Series 2: Project Files and Reference Materials, 1928-2004 contain notes and correspondence kept by Jones in support of the oral history project. This series is divided into four sub-series: Sub-series 2.1: State Files, Sub-series 2.2: Project and Reference Files, 1985-1991, Sub-series 2.3: Reference Publications, Pamphlets and Articles, 1928-2004 and Sub-series 2d: Computer Floppy Disks, 1985 and undated. This series include bills, receipts, photo orders, travel brochures, reference materials, articles, correspondence, fundraising proposals and materials, USDA Extension Service bulletins, product cookbooks, and ephemera. These materials are valuable in documenting the methodology of the oral history project. They are also valuable in detailing the funding and maintenance of the project over its five-year lifespan. There is also a great deal of information on black farmers. This series is arranged alphabetically by state and county or by article/publication title and within the file chronologically.
Series 3: Photographic Prints and Slides, 1987-1991 documenting the individuals interviewed, their homes and businesses, and geographic locations that were studied as part of the oral history project. The series is arranged numerically then chronologically by year. This series is followed by detailed photographic descriptions arranged alphabetically by state then subject. Photograph files contain photographs taken by a Smithsonian photographer or Jones and any copies of photographs supplied by the subject. Most of the photographs are black and white.
Series 4: Original Interview Tapes and Reference Compact Discs (CD), 1986-1991 are the original tapes of the individual interviews conducted by Jones. This series is divided into eight sub-series. Reference numbers for CDs matching the original tapes are noted after the tapes. CDs 495-497 are for the Smithsonian Photographer's Show: Sub-series 4.1: Arkansas, Sub-series 4.2: Georgia, Sub-series 4.3: Louisiana, Sub-series 4.4: Mississippi, Sub-series 4.5: North Carolina (within this sub-series are the transcripts of the Mexican Workers Project there may be an English language transcription as well as one in Spanish), Sub-series 4.6: South Carolina, Sub-series 4.7: Tennessee and Sub-series 4.8: Virginia and Sub-series 4.9: Miscellaneous and Duplicates, within the sub-series tapes are arranged alphabetically by subject.
Arrangement:
The collection is divided into four series:
Series 1, Oral History Transcript
Series 2, Project Files
Series 3, Photographic Prints and Slides
Series 4, Original Oral History Interview Tapes and Reference Compact Discs (CDs) are the original interview tapes and the accompanying reference copy cds.
History:
The history of the American South is intricately entwined with the history of agriculture in North America. Until very recently, post 1950, the South was predominately rural and agricultural in both its production and culture. By the 1980s American agriculture, and particularly agriculture in the south, was under attack on various fronts especially cultural, financial, and technological. This assault threatened the very existence of the small and family farm. Many small farming operations went bankrupt and the face of American agriculture was becoming more corporate. It was amidst these troubling times that the Agricultural Division of the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History undertook a massive project to document southern agriculture through oral history.
Through the efforts of NMAH staff, Pete Daniel, curator and project director, LuAnn Jones, researcher, and with countless support from staff photographers and personnel, Jones conducted approximately 159 interviews of individual persons, couples and sometimes small groups, in eight southern states over a five year period, 1986-1991. The project was funded by a series of grants from various sources. Not only were oral histories taken but also substantial documentary photographs and slides of the many interviewees. The interviews ranged from individual farmers to individuals at companies and corporations involved with agriculture. The range of crops discussed included tobacco, cotton and rice. The project interviewed a wide range of subjects: male, female, black, white, and Mexican. The project has contributed to at least two books, Mama Learned Us to Work: Farm Women in the New South by LuAnn Jones and Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World by Jacquelyn Dowd Hall and others of which Jones was a contributing author.
Related Collections:
Materials in the Archives Center
Warshaw Collection of Business Americana (NMAH.AC.0060)
Kulp Collection of Account Books, 1755-1904 (NMAH.AC.0149)
Robinson and Via Family Papers (NMAH.AC.0475)
William C. Kost Farm Records (NMAH.AC.0481)
Timothy B. Bladen, Southern Maryland Photoprints (NMAH.AC.0767)
Provenance:
A transfer from the Division of History of Technology (Agriculture), NMAH, July 2001
Restrictions:
Collection is open for research. Unprotected photographs must be handled with gloves.
Rights:
Collection items available for reproduction, but the Archives Center makes no guarantees concerning copyright restrictions. Other intellectual property rights may apply. Archives Center cost-recovery and use fees may apply when requesting reproductions.
Use of the materials requires an appointment. Please contact the archivist at ACMarchives@si.edu
Collection Rights:
Collection items available for reproduction, but the Archives makes no guarantees concerning copyright restrictions. Other intellectual property rights may apply. Archives cost-recovery and use fees may apply when requesting reproductions.
Freedmen's Bureau Digital Collection, 1865–1872, is a product of and owned by the National Museum of African American History and Culture, Smithsonian Institution. Copyright for digital images is retained by the donor, FamilySearch International; permission for commercial use of the digital images may be requested from FamilySearch International, Intellectual Property Office, at: cor-intellectualproperty@ldschurch.org.
Collection Citation:
Courtesy of the U. S. National Archives and Records Administration, FamilySearch International, and the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture.
The Archives of American Art makes its archival collections available for non-commercial, educational and personal use unless restricted by copyright and/or donor restrictions, including but not limited to access and publication restrictions. AAA makes no representations concerning such rights and restrictions and it is the user's responsibility to determine whether rights or restrictions exist and to obtain any necessary permission to access, use, reproduce and publish the collections. Please refer to the Smithsonian's Terms of Use for additional information.
Collection Citation:
Jacques Seligmann & Co. records, 1904-1978, bulk 1913-1974. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Sponsor:
Processing of the collection was funded by the Getty Grant Program; digitization of the collection was funded by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation and the Terra Foundation for American Art. Glass plate negatives in this collection were digitized in 2019 with funding provided by the Smithsonian Women's Committee.
The Archives of American Art makes its archival collections available for non-commercial, educational and personal use unless restricted by copyright and/or donor restrictions, including but not limited to access and publication restrictions. AAA makes no representations concerning such rights and restrictions and it is the user's responsibility to determine whether rights or restrictions exist and to obtain any necessary permission to access, use, reproduce and publish the collections. Please refer to the Smithsonian's Terms of Use for additional information.
Collection Citation:
Jacques Seligmann & Co. records, 1904-1978, bulk 1913-1974. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
Sponsor:
Processing of the collection was funded by the Getty Grant Program; digitization of the collection was funded by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation and the Terra Foundation for American Art. Glass plate negatives in this collection were digitized in 2019 with funding provided by the Smithsonian Women's Committee.
Material is subject to Smithsonian Terms of Use. Should you wish to use NASM material in any medium, please submit an Application for Permission to Reproduce NASM Material, available at Permissions Requests.
Collection Citation:
Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. Collection, Acc. 1992.0023, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
Records of the Field Offices for the State of Mississippi, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, 1865–1872
Extent:
65 Reels
Type:
Collection descriptions
Archival materials
Reels
Date:
1865–1872
Summary:
The collection is comprised of digital surrogates previously available on the 65 rolls of microfilm described in the NARA publication M1907. These digital surrogates reproduced the records of the Mississippi headquarters for the Assistant Commissioner and his staff officers and the subordinate field offices of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, 1865–1872. The files contain some pre–Bureau record series, dated 1863–1864, that were created by military commanders and U. S. Treasury agents who dealt with refugees and freedmen during the Civil War. These records consist of bound volumes and unbound records, containing materials that include letters sent and received, monthly reports, registers of complaints, and other records relating to freedmen's claims and bounty payments.
Records Description:
These records consist of volumes and unbound records. The volumes reproduced in this publication were originally arranged by the Freedmen's Bureau by type of record and thereunder by volume number. No numbers were assigned to series consisting of single volumes. Years later, all volumes were assigned numbers by the Adjutant General's Office (AGO) of the War Department after the records came into its custody. In this publication, AGO numbers are shown in parentheses to aid in identifying the volumes. The National Archives assigned the volume numbers that are not in parentheses. In some volumes, particularly in indexes and alphabetical headings of registers, there are blank numbered pages that have not been filmed.
The volumes consist of letters and endorsements sent and received, press copies of letters sent, registers of letters received, letters and orders received, registers of freedmen issued rations, special orders and circulars issued, registers of bounty claimants, and monthly reports forwarded to the Assistant Commissioner. The unbound documents consist of letters and orders received, unregistered letters and narrative reports received, special orders and circulars issued, and general orders and circulars received. The unbound records also contain monthly reports; amnesty oaths; applications of freedmen for rations; and records relating to claims, court trials, property restoration, and homesteads.
A few series were created in 1863–1864, prior to formation of the Bureau, by Union military commanders and U. S. Treasury agents, and included in the Bureau records. Some of the volumes contain more than one type of record, reflecting a common recording practice of clerks and staff officers in that period. In Series 2.2, for example, the Registers of Letters Received also contain a register of criminal cases maintained by the judge advocate of the district of Vicksburg. Researchers should read carefully the records descriptions and arrangements in the finding aid to make full use of these records.
Historical Note:
[The following is reproduced from the original NARA descriptive pamphlet for M1907.]
HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION
The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, also known as the Freedmen's Bureau, was established in the War Department by an act of Congress on March 3, 1865 (13 Stat. 507). The life of the Bureau was extended twice by acts of July 16, 1866 (14 Stat. 173), and July 6, 1868 (15 Stat. 83). The Bureau was responsible for the supervision and management of all matters relating to refugees and freedmen, and of lands abandoned or seized during the Civil War. In May 1865, President Andrew Johnson appointed Maj. Gen. Oliver Otis Howard as Commissioner of the Bureau, and Howard served in that position until June 30, 1872, when activities of the Bureau were terminated in accordance with an act of June 10, 1872 (17 Stat. 366). While a major part of the Bureau's early activities involved the supervision of abandoned and confiscated property, its mission was to provide relief and help freedmen become self–sufficient. Bureau officials issued rations and clothing, operated hospitals and refugee camps, and supervised labor contracts. In addition, the Bureau managed apprenticeship disputes and complaints, assisted benevolent societies in the establishment of schools, helped freedmen in legalizing marriages entered into during slavery, and provided transportation to refugees and freedmen who were attempting to reunite with their family or relocate to other parts of the country. The Bureau also helped black soldiers, sailors, and their heirs collect bounty claims, pensions, and back pay.
The act of March 3, 1865, authorized the appointment of Assistant Commissioners to aid the Commissioner in supervising the work of the Bureau in the former Confederate states, the border states, and the District of Columbia. While the work performed by Assistant Commissioners in each state was similar, the organizational structure of staff officers varied from state to state. At various times, the staff could consist of a superintendent of education, an assistant adjutant general, an assistant inspector general, a disbursing officer, a chief medical officer, a chief quartermaster, and a commissary of subsistence. Subordinate to these officers were the assistant superintendents, or subassistant commissioners as they later became known, who commanded the subdistricts.
The Assistant Commissioner corresponded extensively with both his superior in the Washington Bureau headquarters and his subordinate officers in the subdistricts. Based upon reports submitted to him by the subassistant commissioners and other subordinate staff officers, he prepared reports that he sent to the Commissioner concerning Bureau activities in areas under his jurisdiction. The Assistant Commissioner also received letters from freedmen, local white citizens, state officials, and other non–Bureau personnel. These letters varied in nature from complaints to applications for jobs in the Bureau. Because the assistant adjutant general handled much of the mail for the Assistant Commissioner's office, letters were often addressed to him instead of to the Assistant Commissioner.
In a circular issued by Commissioner Howard in July 1865, the Assistant Commissioners were instructed to designate one officer in each state to serve as "General Superintendents of Schools." These officials were to "take cognizance of all that is being done to educate refugees and freedmen, secure proper protection to schools and teachers, promote method and efficiency, correspond with the benevolent agencies which are supplying his field, and aid the Assistant Commissioner in making his required reports." In October 1865, a degree of centralized control was established over Bureau educational activities in the states when Rev. John W. Alvord was appointed Inspector of Finances and Schools. In January 1867, Alvord was divested of his financial responsibilities, and he was appointed General Superintendent of Education.
An act of Congress, approved July 25, 1868 (15 Stat. 193), ordered that the Commissioner of the Bureau "shall, on the first day of January next, cause the said bureau to be withdrawn from the several States within which said bureau has acted and its operation shall be discontinued." Consequently, in early 1869, with the exception of the superintendents of education and the claims agents, the Assistant Commissioners and their subordinate officers were withdrawn from the states.
For the next year and a half the Bureau continued to pursue its education work and to process claims. In the summer of 1870, the superintendents of education were withdrawn from the states, and the headquarters staff was greatly reduced. From that time until the Bureau was abolished by an act of Congress approved June 10, 1872 (17 Stat. 366), effective June 30, 1872, the Bureau's functions related almost exclusively to the disposition of claims. The Bureau's records and remaining functions were then transferred to the Freedmen's Branch in the office of the Adjutant General. The records of this branch are among the Bureau's files.
THE FREEDMEN'S BUREAU IN MISSISSIPPI
ORGANIZATION
The first Assistant Commissioner of Mississippi was Col. Samuel Thomas, who established his headquarters at Vicksburg in June 1865. Before his appointment to the Freedmen's Bureau, Colonel Thomas served in Mississippi within Chaplain John Eaton's Freedmen's Department of the Department of Tennessee. The functions and activities of the Freedmen's Department in Mississippi were similar to those of the later Bureau. Although the size and organization of the Mississippi office varied from time to time, the Assistant Commissioner's staff usually included an acting adjutant general, an assistant inspector general, and a surgeon in chief, a superintendent of education, a disbursing officer, and a chief commissary of subsistence.
At the start of operations in Mississippi, officers subordinate to the Assistant Commissioner were organized in a hierarchical manner. The state of Mississippi and the parishes of Madison, Carroll, Concordia, and Tenas in northeastern Louisiana were divided into the Western, Southern, and Northern Districts, with an acting assistant commissioner in charge of each district. Subassistant commissioners in charge of subdistricts, which usually encompassed several counties, reported directly to the acting assistant commissioners, who, in turn, reported to the Assistant Commissioner. In January 1866, the Louisiana parishes were placed within the jurisdiction of the Assistant Commissioner for Louisiana. In March 1866, the three districts were discontinued; thereafter, the subassistant commissioners or the civilian agents in charge of subdistricts reported directly to the Assistant Commissioner.
Colonel Thomas was succeeded by three other officers who acted as both Assistant Commissioners and military commanders in Mississippi. In April 1866, Gen. Thomas J. Wood was appointed Assistant Commissioner for Mississippi; he was succeeded in January 1867 by Gen. Alvan C. Gillem. In March 1869, Gen. Adelbert Ames was appointed Assistant Commissioner; he established his headquarters at Jackson and supervised the closing of the office of the Assistant Commissioner. Gen. Ames's appointment was revoked on April 30, 1869. The major subordinate field offices for the Bureau at Mississippi included those with headquarters at Jackson, Lauderdale, Natchez, and Vicksburg. For a list of known Mississippi subordinate field office personnel and their dates of service, see the Appendix.
ACTIVITIES
The major activities of the Freedmen's Bureau in Mississippi generally resembled those conducted in other states. The Bureau issued rations to both freedmen and white refugees, supervised labor contracts between planters and freedmen, administered justice, worked with benevolent societies in the establishment of schools, provided assistance in legalizing freedmen marriages, and assisted, to a limited extent, in locating land for freedmen.
The Freedmen's Bureau sought to prevent widespread starvation and destitution in Mississippi by issuing more than 180,000 rations to both whites and blacks in 1865, and 170,000 rations to blacks and white refugees in 1866. Also in 1866, Commissioner Howard ordered an end to rations except for freedmen in Bureau hospitals and orphanages. By December 1868, the Bureau's relief efforts in Mississippi ceased.1
The regulation of written labor agreements between planters and freedmen was a major concern of the Freedmen's Bureau in Mississippi. In General Orders Number 5 (July 29, 1865), Assistant Commissioner Thomas outlined the rules governing the free labor system in the state. He specified that all contracts between freedmen and planters must be in writing and approved by the Bureau. Contracts were not to exceed one year, and any contracts involving wages must allow for food, clothing, and medical attention. The Bureau settled disputes. Between 1865 and 1866, numerous freedmen complained of inadequate compensation for their labor. Freedmen who worked for "Shares" (for a portion of the crop) found themselves in debt to planters at the end of the season, and thus forced to contract for the next year to pay their obligations. Blacks who worked for wages were frequently cheated of their pay and in some instances, like those who worked for shares, were "Driven Off" once the crops were harvested. Assistant Commissioner T. J. Wood, who replaced Thomas in 1867, instituted a plan by which freedmen contracted with planters for a portion of the crop. Freedmen were to receive one–third of the crop, and planters were to supply land, stock, tools and food. Clothing, medicines, and the cost of rations provided to children too young to work would be taken from the freedmen's share of the crop at the end of the year. By 1868, a modified version of the "Share System" became the most prevalent kind of labor agreement in Mississippi. Freedmen who worked land provided by the planters paid a stipulated rent or a certain amount of cotton or corn for the use of the land. By and large, this labor arrangement allowed freedmen to rely less on credit from planters and more on their own resources for supplies.2
Safeguarding rights and securing justice for freedmen was also of great concern to the Bureau. Following the Civil War, several Southern states, including Mississippi, enacted a series of laws commonly known as "Black Codes," which restricted the rights and legal status of freedmen. Under Mississippi law, for example, blacks could not rent or lease land outside cities and towns, thus restricting their ability to become independent farmers. Freedmen who were not lawfully employed by the second Monday of each January were considered vagrants, and as such, were subject to fines and imprisonment. Freedmen were prohibited from owning firearms without a license, and black children who were deemed orphans could be bound out as apprentices without their parents' permission. Assistant Commissioner Thomas issued General Orders Number 8 (September 20, 1865), which offered Mississippi judicial officials the opportunity to try freedmen cases in local courts (without interference from the Bureau) if they would afford blacks the same "Rights and Privileges" as whites. In October 1865, after Mississippi officials agreed to accept his offer, Thomas ordered that all cases relating to freedmen were to be handled by Mississippi judges and magistrates. However, it was not until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 that the Freedmen's Bureau in Mississippi was able to achieve some degree of equal justice for freedmen.3
From July 1865 to July 1866, the educational activity of the Bureau in Mississippi was under the direction of Dr. Joseph Warren. Following his resignation, the duties of the superintendent of education were performed by Assistant Commissioners for eight months, until H. R. Pease assumed the duties of the office on May 18, 1867. Pease found that some 63 teachers were employed in the major towns and villages by various educational and benevolent associations, and that another 31 teachers, who received aid from the Bureau, were employed by freedmen. Many of the schools, however, lacked adequate buildings, and in schools in areas where the black population was small, freedmen were unable to support teachers' salaries. Teachers and trustees had difficulty collecting tuition from pupils, and, with no teaching standards, some teachers were unfit to teach. The Bureau cooperated with educational and benevolent societies, and encouraged freedmen to contribute to the support of their schools by paying a monthly tuition. By December 1868, the number of pupils attending freedmen schools increased from over 2,000 in October 1867 to more than 6,000, and the number of freedmen schools increased from 47 to 115. Teachers commissioned by educational societies increased from 13 to 23; and teachers supported by freedmen and the Bureau went from 34 to 101. Assistant Commissioner Gillem reported that during the year ending October 1868, more whites were beginning to take an active role in assisting blacks in building schools and supporting teachers.4
The Bureau in Mississippi was very active in documenting and solemnizing marriages of freedmen. Continuing a practice started by military officials and civilians during the Civil War, Assistant Commissioner Samuel Thomas issued Circular Number 1 (July 3, 1865) authorizing his officers to keep a record of marriages of persons of color and gave instruction on how to maintain marriage registers. Returns of marriage certificates forwarded to the Office of the Commissioner by Assistant Commissioner Thomas include such information as the color of persons marrying, complexion of parents, and the number of years the couple had been living together as man and wife. The certificates also include data about the number of years the couple lived with another person, how they were separated, and the number of children by a previous connection. Marriage records in the records of the Mississippi Office of the Assistant Commissioner provide similar information. The registers for Davis Bend, Vicksburg, and Natchez, Mississippi, document the registration of more than 4,600 freedmen from Mississippi and northern Louisiana. Over half of the soldiers registering marriages for Natchez were members of the 6th Mississippi Heavy Artillery of the U. S. Colored Troops. Nearly all of the soldiers registering marriages for Davis Bend served with the 64th Colored Infantry. The Mississippi subdistrict field office also registered freedmen marriages or issued licenses and certificates in the subdistricts of Brookhaven, Columbus, Davis Bend, Goodman, Grenada, Jackson, and Pass Christian.5
The Southern Homestead Act (14 Stat. 66), approved by Congress on June 21, 1866, made available for public settlement 46 million acres of public lands in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Nearly 5 million acres of this Federal land was located in Mississippi. Because the act specifically prohibited discrimination against applicants due to race, it offered an opportunity for Mississippi freedmen and others to become landowners. Generally, the Freedmen's Bureau assisted interested freedmen through "Locating Agents" in finding plots, and provided them with one–month subsistence, free transportation to their prospective tracts of land, and seeds for the initial planting. In Mississippi, as in other public land states in the South, most freedmen were under labor agreements at the time of the act and were unable to take advantage of land opportunities. Because Mississippi had no land office, Bureau officials were unable to secure maps and other records relating to the quality and location of public lands in the state. By 1868, feeling that much of the public land for Mississippi was of poor quality and "Unfit for Agricultural Purposes," Bvt. Brig. Gen. Alvan C. Gillem, who replaced Thomas Wood in early 1867 as Mississippi Assistant Commissioner, made no effort to survey public lands. A land office was eventually opened in August 1868. By then, however, the Freedmen's Bureau, for all practical purposes, had been discontinued.6
ENDNOTES
1 William C. Harris, Presidential Reconstruction in Mississippi (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967), p. 84; Annual Reports of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi, October 10, 1867, p. 20, and December 12, 1868, pp. 11 – 12, Records of the Office of the Commissioner, Record Group 105, NARA.
2 House Ex. Doc. 70, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., Serial Vol. 1256, pp. 167 – 168; Annual Reports, Mississippi, October 10, 1867, pp. 4 – 11, and December 12, 1868, pp. 3 – 4.
3 Donald G. Nieman, "The Freedmen's Bureau and the Mississippi Black Code," The Journal of Mississippi History XL, No. 2 (May 1978): pp. 92 – 99; House Ex. Doc. 70, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., pp. 101 – 102.
4 Annual Reports, Mississippi, October 10, 1867, pp. 27 – 34; see also, the report for December 12, 1868, [pp. 12 – 17].
5 For a discussion of Mississippi marriage registers, see Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1790–1925 (New York: Vintage Books, 1976), pp. 18 – 24. The Mississippi marriage registers are reproduced in National Archives Microfilm Publication M826, Records of the Assistant Commissioner for the State of Mississippi, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, 1865–1869, Roll 42. Compiled service records for the 6th Mississippi Heavy Artillery, USCT, have been reproduced on microfilm publication M1818, Compiled Military Service Records of Volunteer Union Soldiers Who Served with the United States Colored Troops: Artillery Organizations, Rolls 109 – 133. For returns of marriage certificates forwarded to the Office of the Commissioner, see microfilm publication M1875, Marriage Records of the Office of the Commissioner, Washington Headquarters of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, 1861–1869, Rolls 2 and 3.
6 Warren Hoffinagle, "The Southern Homestead Act: Its Origins and Operation," The Historian; A Journal of History, XXXII, No. 4 (1970): 618 – 620.
Freedmen's Bureau Personnel in Mississippi:
This list provides the names and dates of service of known Freedmen's Bureau personnel at selected subordinate field offices in Mississippi. Additional information regarding persons assigned to various field offices might be found among the Bureau's Washington headquarters station books and rosters of military officers and civilians on duty in the states and other appointment–related records.
ABERDEEN
Sept.–Nov. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner Stuart Eldridge
Dec. 1867–Feb. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner William K. White (Agent at Okolona)
BROOKHAVEN
Mar.–Apr. 1866 -- Subcommissioner Z. B. Chatfield
Apr.–June 1866 -- Subcommissioner Robert P. Gardner
June 1866–Apr. 1867 -- Subcommissioner W. Eldridge
Apr.–July 1867 -- Subcommissioner W. Eldridge
July–Nov. 1867 -- Subcommissioner E. C. Gilbrath
Dec. 1867–Mar. 1868 -- Agent A. K. Long
Mar.–Oct. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner E. E. Platt
Oct.–Nov. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner George Haller
Nov.–Dec. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner John D. Moore
COLUMBUS
Mar. 1866–Mar. 1867 -- Subcommissioner George S. Smith
Mar.–May 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner George S. Smith
May–June 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner W. G. Sprague
June–Aug. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner George S. Smith
Aug.–Dec. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner William K. White
Dec. 1867–Jan. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner W. H. Bartholomew
Jan.–Mar. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner James Kelly
Mar.–Sept. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner W. H. Bartholomew
Sept.–Dec. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner James Kelly
CORINTH
Mar.–Aug. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner John D. Moore
Aug.–Sept. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner George S. Smith
Feb.–Mar. 1866 -- Subassistant Commissioner R. D. Mitchell
July 1866–Nov. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner George W. Corliss
Mar.–Apr. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner Allen P. Huggins (Agent at McKutt)
Apr.–Oct. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner Allen P. Huggins (Agent at Greenwood)
Oct.–Dec. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner E. E. Platt (Subassistant Commissioner at Greenwood)
FRIARS POINT
May–Oct. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner W. H. Eldridge
Nov. 1868–Jan. 1869 -- Subassistant Commissioner D. M. White
GOODMAN
July–Aug. 1867 -- Agent H. W. Barry
Sept.–Nov. 1867 -- Agent Charles A. Shields
GREENVILLE
Mar.–Apr. 1867 -- Subcommissioner William L. Ryan
Sept.–Dec. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner William L. Tidball
Dec.–1867–May 1868 and May–July 1868 -- Agent Thad K. Preuss
July–Aug. 1868 -- Agent Andrew Thomas
Sept.–Dec. 1868 -- Agent Samuel Goozee
GRENADA
Mar.–Apr. 1866 -- Subcommissioner S. Marvin
Apr.–Oct. 1866 -- Subcommissioner Silas May
Oct. 1866–July 1867 -- Assistant Subcommissioner James N. Shipley
Aug.–Sept. 1867 -- Assistant Subcommissioner D. M. White
Oct. 1867–Feb. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner William Shields
Feb.–Mar. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner Charles Walden
Mar.–Dec. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner William Wedemeyker
HOLLY SPRINGS
Sept.–Dec. 1867 -- Subcommissioner John Power
Dec. 1867–Jan. 1868 -- Agent H. H. Service
Jan.–Oct. 1868 -- Subcommissioner John Power
Oct.–Dec. 1868 -- Clerk H. A. Cooper
JACKSON — Acting Assistant Commissioner of the Northern District of Mississippi
July 1865–Mar. 1866 -- Acting Assistant Commissioner of the Northern District of Mississippi R. S. Donaldson
JACKSON
Jan.–Mar. 1866 -- Subcommissioner Thomas Smith
Mar.–Nov. 1866 -- Subcommissioner H. Gardner
Dec. 1866–Feb. 1867 -- Subcommissioner H. R. Williams
Feb.–Aug. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner Robert P. Gardner
Aug.–Dec. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner Samuel S. Sumner
Dec. 1867–Jan. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner Allen P. Heuggins
Feb.–Dec. 1868 -- Agent Joseph B. Holt
LAKE STATION
Sept.–Oct. 1867 -- Agent Charles Walden
Nov. 1867–Feb. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner George W. Corliss
Feb.–Dec. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner George W. Corliss (also at Forest)
LAUDERDALE
Apr.–July 1866 -- Subassistant Commissioner Henry E. Rainals
July 1866–Feb. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner D. M. White
Mar. 1866–Aug. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner Joseph W. Sunderland
Aug. 1867–Feb. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner John D. Moore
Feb.–Aug. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner John D. Moore (at Meridian)
Sept.–Oct. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner John D. Moore (at DeKalb)
Feb.–Apr. 1868 -- Agent John D. Moore
Apr.–Dec. 1868 -- Agent O. C. French
LEXINGTON
Aug.–Sept. 1867 -- Agent H. W. Barry
Dec. 1867 -- Agent C. A. Shields
LOUISVILLE
Sept. 1867–Feb. 1868 -- Agent John Williams
Feb.–July 1868 -- Agent John Williams (at Durant)
July–Sept. 1868 -- Agent H. H. Service (at Durant)
MACON
Oct.–Dec. 1865 -- Subcommissioner Louis H. Gest
July–Sept. 1867 -- Agent William H. Ross
Oct. 1867–Dec. 1868 -- Agent George S. Smith
MAGNOLIA
Aug.–Nov. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner York A. Woodward
Dec. 1867–Dec. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner (also at Woodville)
MERIDIAN
Aug. 1865 -- Subcommissioner C. W. Clark
Sept.–Nov. 1865 -- Subcommissioner E. L. Buckwalter
Jan.–July 1866 -- Subcommissioner John J. Knox
June–Aug. 1866 -- Subcommissioner James W. Sunderland
July–Dec. 1866 -- Subcommissioner Henry E. Rainals
Jan.–Feb. 1867 -- Subcommissioner James W. Sunderland
July–Sept. 1867 -- Subcommissioner Thomas H. Norton
Sept. 1867–Feb. 1868 -- Agent Andrew Thomas
Feb.–July 1868 -- Agent (also Agent at Hickory)
NATCHEZ, Southern District of Mississippi
Mar.–July 1865 -- Provost Marshal of Freedmen George D. Reynolds
July 1865–Mar. 1866 -- Acting Assistant Commissioner George D. Reynolds
NATCHEZ
Mar. 1866 -- Subcommissioner A. Kemper
July 1866–June 1867 -- Subcommissioner E. E. Platt
July 1867–Apr. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner James Biddle
Apr.–Aug. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner George Haller
Sept. 1868–Jan. 1869 -- Subassistant Commissioner Charles A. Wikoff
OKOLONA
Aug.–Sept. 1865 -- Subcommissioner J. M. Buel
Jan.–Mar. 1866 -- Subcommissioner W. F. DuBois
Nov.–Dec. 1867 -- Subcommissioner W. H. Eldridge (See Tupelo)
Dec. 1867–Feb. 1868 -- Subcommissioner William K. White (See Aberdeen)
OXFORD
May–June 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner Edward B. Rossiter
June–Oct. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner Thad. K. Preuss
PASS CHRISTIAN
Feb. 1866 -- Subcommissioner A. L. Hemingway
Apr.–June 1866 -- Subcommissioner John D. Moore
June 1866–Feb. 1867 -- Subcommissioner Robert P. Gardner
Feb.–Mar. 1867 -- Subcommissioner John D. Moore
Mar.–July 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner George W. Corliss
July–Sept. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner Charles Hyatt
Nov. 1867 -- Agent M. Lathrup (Agent)
PHILADELPHIA
Sept. 1867–Jan. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner Robert P. Gardner
PORT GIBSON
May–July 1865 -- Provost Marshal of Freedmen at Rodney D. F. Hart
July–Aug. 1865 -- Provost Marshal of Freedmen at Claiborne County D. F. Hart
Sept.–Nov. 1865 -- Subcommissioner H. O. Stavis
Nov. 1865–Feb. 1866 -- Subcommissioner James M. Babcock
Feb. 1866 -- Subcommissioner J. T. Hanna
June–Sept. 1867 -- Agent A. S. Alden
Dec. 1867–May 1868 -- Agent W. H. Eldridge (at Port Gibson) (See Tupelo)
Dec. 1868 -- Agent A. K. Long
SARDIS
Dec. 1867 -- Agent D. S. Harriman (also at Panola)
Dec. 1867–July 1868 -- Agent M. Lathrop (at Panola)
Aug. 1868 -- Agent M. Lathrop (at Sardis)
Sept. 1868 -- Clerk H. A. Cooper
Oct.–Dec. 1868 -- Clerk James H. Pierce
SKIPWITHS LANDING
Aug.–Oct. 1865 -- Subcommissioner S. G. Swain
Nov. 1865–Feb. 1866 -- Subcommissioner O. B. Foster
STARKVILLE
Sept. 1867–Feb. 1868 -- Agent Charles A. Sullivan
Mar.–July 1868 -- Agent C. L. Currier Coss
TUPELO
July–Nov. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner W. H. Eldridge
Nov.–Dec. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner W. H. Eldridge (at Okolona)
Dec. 1867–May 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner W. H. Eldridge (at Port Gibson)
Aug.–Dec. 1868 -- Agent H. A. Kelly
VICKSBURG, Western District of Mississippi
June 1865 -- Provost Marshal of Freedmen George D. Reynolds
June 1865–Feb. 1866 -- Assistant Commissioner J. H. Weber
VICKSBURG
Feb.–Mar. 1866 -- Subcommissioner S. G. Swain
May 1866 -- Subcommissioner J. K. Byers Fielding
July–Oct. 1866 -- Subcommissioner Neale George
Jan.–Mar. 1867 -- Subcommissioner W. Corliss
Apr.–July 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner J. H. Chapman
July 1867–Feb. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner E. E. Platt
Mar.–Dec. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner J. H. Chapman
VICKSBURG
Sept.–Oct. 1864 -- Special Agent of the Treasury Department T. C. Callicot
Oct. 1864–July 1865 -- Special Agent of the Treasury Department C. A. Montross
WINCHESTER
Aug.–Dec. 1865 -- Subcommissioner William R. Gallian
May–Oct. 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner J. Whitney
WOODVILLE
Jan.–Feb. 1866 -- Agent William R. Gallian
Aug.–Nov. 1867 -- Assistant Subcommissioner George Haller
Dec. 1867–Dec. 1868 -- Assistant Subcommissioner (See Magnolia)
YAZOO CITY
June–July 1865 -- Provost Marshal of Freedmen Ozro B. Foster
July–Oct. 1865 -- Subcommissioner Ozro B. Foster
Oct.–Nov. 1865 -- Subcommissioner Charles W. Clarke
Dec. 1865–Feb. 1866 -- Subcommissioner Leonard P. Woodworth
Mar.–May 1867 -- Subassistant Commissioner D. M. White
May–Oct. 1867 -- Agent Alan P. Huggins
Oct. 1867–Oct. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner D. M. White
Oct.–Dec. 1868 -- Subassistant Commissioner W. H. Eldridge
Related Materials:
See also Freedmen's Bureau Digital Collection
Provenance:
Acquired from FamilySearch International in 2015.
Restrictions:
Freedmen's Bureau Digital Collection, 1865–1872, is a product of and owned by the National Museum of African American History and Culture, Smithsonian Institution. Copyright for digital images is retained by the donor, FamilySearch International; permission for commercial use of the digital images may be requested from FamilySearch International, Intellectual Property Office, at: cor-intellectualproperty@ldschurch.org.
Courtesy of the U. S. National Archives and Records Administration, FamilySearch International, and the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture.
The two volumes of registers of labor contracts, December 1865–September 1866 and January 1867–January 1868, 1 (52), and January–September 1866, 2 (53), are arranged by month. The entries in Volume 1 (52) include the name of the employer and employees and the rate or kind of compensation. The entries in Volume 2 (53) contain the name of the employer and the number of freedmen he contracted to employ. Volume 1 (52) also contains fair copies of orders issued to local citizens by agent William Brian at Jacksonport (December 1867–January 1868). The orders direct the recipient to appear at the agent's office to answer freedmen complaints or enjoin planters and farmers from disposing of their crops until claims against them had been investigated and settled. Volume 2 (53) includes a few miscellaneous entries relating to acts of violence committed against freedmen (September–October 1866).
Collection Restrictions:
Freedmen's Bureau Digital Collection, 1865–1872, is a product of and owned by the National Museum of African American History and Culture, Smithsonian Institution. Copyright for digital images is retained by the donor, FamilySearch International; permission for commercial use of the digital images may be requested from FamilySearch International, Intellectual Property Office, at: cor-intellectualproperty@ldschurch.org.
Collection Citation:
Courtesy of the U. S. National Archives and Records Administration, FamilySearch International, and the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture.
Smithsonian Institution. Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage Search this
Type:
Archival materials
Introduction:
The 2005 program celebrated what was characterized as a recent "food revolution". The program looked both backward and forward: backward to long-held community traditions in growing, marketing, cooking, and eating; forward to innovations for making these traditions sustainable and passing them on to future generations. The food revolution depends on nurturing a physical environment that supports diversity; sustaining the knowledge needed to cultivate that biodiversity; and passing on traditions of preparing and eating. Together, these traditions are the foundation of much of our shared human experience and they served as the organizing themes for theFestival program.
America's food by 2005 had become a constantly changing blend of native and foreign ingredients and techniques coupled with the ingredients of all-American ingenuity and energy. The Civil Rights Movement spurred Americans to explore their rich African American and Native American traditions. In 1965 a new Immigration Act lifted the quotas on immigration from many non-European countries, contributing to an increase in immigrants from Latin American, African, and Asian countries. As many others had done for centuries, people from India, Thailand, Afghanistan, and Lebanon brought their culture to the U.S. in the way of food. Presentations at the Festival included farmers and growers, noted chefs and cookbook authors, and suppliers of diverse, largely artisanal, food products - as well as a strong focus on educational programs aimed both at children and their parents.
As of 2005, an expanding group of innovative growers were supplying the creative cooks, urban markets, and rows of ethnic restaurants. Over the previous four decades, for cultural, culinary, environmental, health, and economic reasons many chefs, environmentalists, and growers became advocates for locally grown, seasonal, sustainable, and organic food. Those models of agriculture have entered the mainstream through grocery stores, farmers markets, and restaurants, altering the American food landscape.
Farmers markets and produce stands give consumers direct contact with farmers, allowing them to ask questions and learn about what is in season. Personal relationships help to create a community bond between growers and eaters. There are also opportunities for people to become more directly involved in the growing of their food. Local farms called CSAs (community supported agriculture) that are supported by subscribers who pay money for a portion of the farm's produce and who also work periodically planting, weeding, and harvesting help people learn about the source of their food. Growers and suppliers to restaurants, farmers' markets, and specialty shops shared their knowledge with Festival visitors.
The number of food programs designed for children has swelled in the past decade alone. Probably the best-known program is Alice Waters's The Edible Schoolyard in Berkeley, California. Begun in 1994, the program is designed to bring the community and experiential ethos of the locally grown-sustainable movement to middle school students. Seeing food as central to building individual health, fulfilling social relationships, and community life, The Edible Schoolyard teaches children to plan a garden, prepare soil, plant, grow and harvest crops, cook, serve, and eat - in its phrasing, food "from seed to table." Students collaborate in decision-making on all aspects of the garden. Working closely with the Center for Ecoliteracy, The Edible Schoolyard teachers have been on the forefront of designing a curriculum that can place food at the center of academic subjects such as math, reading, and history in order to "rethink school lunch." Festival visitors could interact with participants from The Edible Schoolyard and other educational programs, and take a guided tour of a schoolyard garden plot.
Joan Nathan was Guest Curator and Stephen Kidd was Co-Curator; Arlene Reiniger was Program Coordinator, Beverly Simons was Program Assistant, and Deborah L. Gaffin was Education Consultant. An Advisory Committee included: Michael Batterberry (Chair), Ariane Batterberry, Warren Belasco, Partice Dionot, John T. Edge, Rayna Green, Tom Head, Ethel Raim, Phyllis Richman, Gus Schumacher, Marsha Wiener, and Ann Yonkers.
The program was made possible through major contributions from Whole Foods Market, the Wallace Genetic Foundation, Silk Soy, and Horizon Organic Dairy. Additional funding came from the United States Department of Agriculture. Contributors included Vanns Spices, Honest Tea, Farm Aid, Guest Services, Inc. , Chipotle Mexican Grill, The Rodale Institute, and the Jean-Louis Palladin Foundation. Major in-kind support came from KitchenAid and Zola/Star Restaurant Group. Collaborative support came from Marriott International, the Washington, DC Convention and Tourism Corporation, and the Culinary Institute of America.
Presenters:
Polly Adema, Betty Belanus, Emily Botein, Charley Camp, John Franklin, Alexandra Greeley, Nancy Groce, Mark Haskell, Kevin Healy, Lucy Long, Steven Prieto, Michael Twitty, Cynthia Vidaurri, Chris Williams
El Ceibo, Río Beni, Bolivia -- El Ceibo, Río Beni, BoliviaBernardo Apaza LluscuEmilio Villca CopaClemente Puna PacoVincente Quelca MixtoMario Choque Quisbert
Coffee
Mshikamano Farmers Association, Mbeya Region, Tanzania -- Mshikamano Farmers Association, Mbeya Region, TanzaniaLinda H. MsangiDavid RobinsonThomas T. Sikapila
Cooking Demonstrations
Ann Amernick, Chevy Chase, Maryland
Douglas Anderson, 1960-, Washington, D.C.
José Andrés, 1969-, Washington, D.C.
Jimmy Andruzzi, 1971-, Staten Island, New York
Dan Barber, Pocantico Hills, New York
Lidia Bastianich, New York, New York
Najmieh Batmanglij, 1947-, Washington, D.C.
Susan Belsinger, Brookeville, Maryland
Tom Bivins, 1962-, Burlington, Vermont
Aulie Bunyarataphan, Washington, D.C.
Mariana Camara, Washington, D.C.
Gilroy Chow, 1940-, Clarksdale, Mississippi
Sally Chow, 1947-, Clarksdale, Mississippi
Nongkran Daks, Chantilly, Virginia
Roberto Donna, Washington, D.C.
Mark Federman, New York, New York
Mark Furstenberg, Washington, D.C.
Marla Gooriah, Alexandria, Virginia
Todd Gray, 1964-, Washington, D.C.
Carole Greenwood, Washington, D.C.
Hi Soo Shin Hepinstall, 1936-, Silver Spring, Maryland
Steve Herrell, 1944-, Northampton, Massachusetts
Melissa Kelly, Rockland, Maine
Ris Lacoste, Washington, D.C.
Ed LaDou, 1955-, Studio City, California
Emeril Lagasse, New Orleans, Louisiana
Cesare Lanfranconi, Washington, D.C.
Francis Layrle, Washington, D.C.
Sheila Lukins, New York, New York
Karen MacNeil, 1954-, St. Helena, California
Brenda Rhodes Miller, Silver Spring, Maryland
Nahid Mohamadi, Chevy Chase, Maryland
Frank Morales, Washington, D.C.
Diana My Tran, Washington, D.C.
Patrick O'Connell, 1945-, Washington, Virginia
Kaz Okochi, Washington, D.C.
Morou Ouattara, Washington, D.C.
Charlie Palmer, 1959-, Washington, D.C.
Charles Phan, San Francisco, California
Culinary Institute of America
Nora Pouillon, Washington, D.C.
Paul Prudhomme, New Orleans, Louisiana
Steven Raichlen, 1953-, Miami, Florida
Carol N. Reynolds, 1955-, Greensboro Bend, Vermont
Michel Richard, 1948-2016, Washington, D.C.
Akasha Richmond, Los Angeles, California
Suvir Saran, New York, New York
David Scribner, Washington, D.C.
Sudhir Seth, Bethesda, Maryland
Suad Shallal, Washington, D.C.
Marion Spear, 1944-, Fox, Arkansas
Fabio Trabocchi, McLean, Virginia
Anthony Uglesich, 1969-, New Orleans, Louisiana
John Uglesich, New Orleans, Louisiana
Herman Vargas, New York, New York
Robert Weland, Washington, D.C.
Janos Wilder, 1954-, Tucson, Arizona
Lisa Yockelson, Hoboken, New Jersey
Eric Ziebold, 1972-, Washington, D.C.
Culinary Institute of America -- Culinary Institute of AmericaCraig Carey, Patrick Decker, Jennifer Meyer, Matthew Raiford, Tara Zmuda
Dairy
Horizon Organic, Boulder, Colorado -- Horizon Organic, Boulder, ColoradoJarod Ballentine, Michael Boswell, Fred Ceconi, Bill Eckland, Jeff Grapko, Diane Kistler, Arden Landis, Cindy Masterman, Jason McGowin, David Morton, Peter Slaunwhite, Connie Weaver, Warren Weaver
The Edible Schoolyard
Jessica Benthien, Berkeley, California
Chelsea Chapman, 1975-, Oakland, California
Eliot Coleman, 1938-, Harborside, Maine
Ann Cooper, East Hampton, New York
Barbara Damrosch, Harborside, Maine
Benjamin Goff, Berkeley, California
Marsha Guerrero, Berkeley, California
Jenny Guillaume, Washington, D.C.
Davia Nelson, San Francisco, California
Kimberly Rush, Washington, D.C.
Kelsey Siegel, 1971-, Berkeley, California
Nikki Silva, San Francisco, California
Josh Viertel, 1977-, New Haven, Connecticut
Alice Waters, Berkeley, California
Food Safety and Quality
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) -- The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)Peggy Barrow, Leslie Davis, Lula Mae Gray, Amy Green, Graciela Iguina, Synthia Jenkins, Basil Lindsay, Howard Seltzer, Robin Smith, Shirley Turpin, Juanita Yates
USDA Food and Nutrition Service -- USDA Food and Nutrition ServiceAudrina Lange, Alison Pack
USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service -- USDA Food Safety and Inspection ServiceJanice Adams-King, Tara Balsley, Matt Baun, Kathy Bernard, Autumn Canaday, Susan Conley, Ben Dinsmore, Eileen Dykes, Amanda Eamich, Nathan Fretz, Brenda Halbrook, Melissa Halbrook, Mary Harris, Rita Hodges, Delphine Hyman, Delphine Hyman, Natalie Illum, Bridgette Keefe, Lydia Kleiner, Argyris Magoulas, Barbara Masters, Holly McPeak, Trish Moynihan, Barbara O'Brien, Keith Payne, Laura Reiser, Ashley Short, Crystal Straughn, Diane Van, Jason Waggoner, Anne Withers, Audrey Young
Guest Services, Inc.
National Restaurant Association
Restaurant Association of Metropolitan Washington -- Restaurant Association of Metropolitan WashingtonStephanie Burdette, Christine Gloninger, Daniel Traster, Glenn Walden
District of Columbia Department of Health
Honey
Beehive Beeproducts, New York, New York
Beekeepers -- BeekeepersShirley Ammon, Ken Brown, Toni Burnham, Pat Deely, Michael Fry, Daphne Fuentevilla, Andy Greig, Carl Greig, Len Greig, Patricia Greig, Claire Hoffman, Marc Hoffman, Kameha Kidd, Brenda Kiessling, Betsy Klinger, Marilyn Kray, Gertrud Mergner, Wolfgang Mergner, Bill Miller, Mary Miller, Ed Murtagh, Laszlo Pentek, Janis Ritchie, Michael Ritchie, Barbara Sina, David Sitomer, Nikki Thompson
Narrative Sessions
Bruce Aidell, San Francisco, California
Ariane Batterberry, New York, New York
Michael Batterberry, New York, New York
Ann Brody, Bethesda, Maryland
Steve Demos, Boulder, Colorado
Steve Jenkins, New York, New York
Judith Jones, New York, New York
Erika Lesser, New York, New York
Bill Niman, Marin County, California
Gus Schumacher, Washington, D.C.
Howard Shapiro, San Juan Pueblo, New Mexico
Slow Roast
Mike Mills, 1941-, Hingham, Massachusetts
Amy Mills Tunicliffe, Hingham, Massachusetts
Rosana Gilmore, El Patio, Rockville, Maryland
Jim Tabb, Tryon, North Carolina
Soy
White Wave, Boulder, Colorado -- White Wave, Boulder, ColoradoMike Bandstra, David Cai, Kortney Dockter, Steve Ehli, Ellen Feeney, Dale Hess, Dick Hou, Summer Lee, Stephanie, Eric Sherman
Spices
Vanns Spices, Baltimore, Maryland -- Vanns Spices, Baltimore, MarylandRita Calvert, Sarah Graham, Ellen Honey, Arehan Kuran, Ellen Trusty, Ann Wilder, Rob Wilder
Tea
Honest Tea, Bethesda, Maryland -- Honest Tea, Bethesda, MarylandJennifer Blazejewski, Jonathan Clark, Seth Goldman, Carrie Haverfield, Thammara Liyanage, Mike Patrone, John Rego, Alicia Schnell
Elizabeth Beggins, 1962-, Pot Pie Farm, Whitman, Maryland
Ann Yonkers, Pot Pie Farm, Whitman, Maryland
Don Bustos, 1956-, Espanola, New Mexico
Jim Crawford, Hustontown, Pennsylvania
Moie Crawford, Hustontown, Pennsylvania
Leslie Harper, Cass Lake, Minnesota
John Jamison, 1947-, Latrobe, Pennsylvania
Sukey Jamison, Latrobe, Pennsylvania
Nova Kim, Albany, Vermont
Les Hook, Albany, Vermont
Tzaxe Lee, 1956-, Fresno, California
Ying Lee, Fresno, California
Mike Pappas, Lanham, Maryland
Harry Records, 1932-, Exeter, Rhode Island
Joel Salatin, Swoope, Virginia
Teresa M. Showa, 1957-, Window Rock, Arizona
Rodale Institute, Kutztown, Pennsylvania -- Rodale Institute, Kutztown, PennsylvaniaKerry Callahan, Amanda Kimble Evans, Kelly Grube, John Haberern, Paul Hepperly, Chris Hill, April Johnson, Jeff Moyer, Maria Pop, Matthew Ryan, Dan Sullivan, Eileen Weinsteiger
Wine
The wine section of the Food Culture USA program was coordinated by WineAmerica, Association of Maryland Wineries, Pennsylvania Wineries Association, New York Wine and Grape Foundation, Missouri Grape and Wine Program, North Carolina Grape Council, and Virginia Wineries Association.
Dana Alexander, Patty Held, Kim Kelsey, Margo Knight, Bob McRitchie, Ann Miller, David Sloane, Susan Spence, Cara Stauffer, Jim Trezise, Bill Wilson, Brian Wilson, Christine Wilson
Collection Restrictions:
Access to the Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections is by appointment only. Visit our website for more information on scheduling a visit or making a digitization request. Researchers interested in accessing born-digital records or audiovisual recordings in this collection must use access copies.
Collection Rights:
Permission to publish materials from the collection must be requested from the Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections. Please visit our website to learn more about submitting a request. The Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections make no guarantees concerning copyright or other intellectual property restrictions. Other usage conditions may apply; please see the Smithsonian's Terms of Use for more information.
Collection Citation:
Smithsonian Folklife Festival records: 2005 Smithsonian Folklife Festival, Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections, Smithsonian Institution.
Interview of Minnie Davis, Martha Barrs and Grady Bryan, presented by Dennis Coehlo on church homecomings and churches; Gordon and Phil Tanner and the Skillet Lickers--Going down the road feeling--Intro--Leather britches--Farmer's blues
Local Numbers:
FP-1980-7RR-0296
General:
CDR copy
Date/Time and Place of an Event Note:
Recorded in: Washington (D.C.), United States, October 11, 1980.
Restrictions:
Restrictions on access. Some duplication is allowed. Use of materials needs permission of the Smithsonian Institution.
Collection Rights:
Permission to publish materials from the collection must be requested from the Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections. Please visit our website to learn more about submitting a request. The Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections make no guarantees concerning copyright or other intellectual property restrictions. Other usage conditions may apply; please see the Smithsonian's Terms of Use for more information.
Collection Citation:
Smithsonian Folklife Festival records: 1980 Festival of American Folklife, Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections, Smithsonian Institution.
Johnny R Hicks--Sunset in the evening star--Dan doo--Old Charlie--State of Arkansas; Ethel Birchfield--Farmer's curst wife; Roan Mountain Hilltoppers--Sugar Hill--Ragtime Annie--Shake that big foot Sally Ann--Walking in the parlor
Local Numbers:
FP-1986-7RR-0050
General:
Ray Hicks; Ethel Birchfield; Roan Mountain Hilltoppers: Bill Birchfield, Creede Birchfield, Janice Birchfield, Joe Birchfield,Ethel Mae Birchfield R 3 Of 8
CDR copy
Date/Time and Place of an Event Note:
Recorded in: Washington, D.C, United States, June 28, 1986.
Restrictions:
Restrictions on access. Some duplication is allowed. Use of materials needs permission of the Smithsonian Institution.
Collection Rights:
Permission to publish materials from the collection must be requested from the Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections. Please visit our website to learn more about submitting a request. The Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections make no guarantees concerning copyright or other intellectual property restrictions. Other usage conditions may apply; please see the Smithsonian's Terms of Use for more information.
